4 questions | Applied Sciences homework help
- Barrett. S. Stay away from Dr. Lorraine Day. Quackwatch Web site, Feb 7, 2010.
TrusTworThy sources of InformaTIon Appendix As you read this, health care consumers are undergoing a radical metamorphosis: They are becoming engaged, em- powered, energized e-Health consumers. They represent a vast force that is about to transform the health care world. Deloitte Consulting, 1999 Science is not a democracy where people’s votes decide what is right. Look at the data, look at science, and make a decision based on science that has been published. Paul offit, M.D.
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“Well, www.what’swrongwithme?.com says it’s just a virus, but I came to you for a second opinion.” Appendix526 The organizations and agencies listed in this Appendix offer trustworthy health information. The Consumer Health Sourcebook (www.chsourcebook.com) links to their Web pages as well as to other sites that are useful for studying consumer health. federal GovernmenT aGencIes Administration for Children & Families Agency for Health Care Research and Quality (AHRQ) Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Federal Consumer Information Center (FCIC) Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Government Accountability Office (GAO) National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) National Health Information Center (NHIC) National Institutes of Health (NIH) National Cancer Institute (NCI) National Eye Institute (NEI) National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) National Institute on Aging (NIA) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) National Library of Medicine (NLM) National Prevention Information Network (NPIN) National Maternal and Child Health Clearinghouse (NMCHC) National SIDS Resource Center (NSRC) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) Office of the Inspector General (OIG) Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE) President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (PCPFS) Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) U.S. Postal Service (USPS) nonGovernmenTal orGanIzaTIons Most of the organizations listed below are volun- tary groups that draw support and members from the general public as well as professionals. Some have a single national office, while others have chapters in various cities. Most of these organizations provide edu- cational materials on request. Some raise and distribute funds for research. Some conduct educational programs for the public and encourage and develop local support groups. Some offer individual counseling. Business and professional groups that are indicated by an asterisk (*) are composed exclusively or primarily of health professionals or other professionally trained individuals. Most of these groups publish a journal and hold educational meetings for their members. Most of them also help the public by issuing guidelines, set- ting professional standards, disseminating information through the Internet and other media, and/or responding to inquiries from individual consumers. Additional information on most of these organiza- tions can be obtained from the Encyclopedia of Medical Organizations and Agencies (Gale Research Company, Detroit), available in the reference department of many public libraries. Nonprofit groups are also described on GuideStar (www.guidestar.org), which hosts copies of their tax returns. *Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly American Dietetic Association) AcademyHealth Action on Smoking and Health (nonsmokers’ rights) Aerobics and Fitness Association of America Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf Alzheimer’s Association *Ambulatory Surgery Center Association *America’s Health Insurance Plans (AHIP) *American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology *American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry *American Academy of Family Physicians *American Academy of Ophthalmology *American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery *American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry *American Academy of Pediatrics American Academy of Physician Assistants *American Academy of Sleep Medicine American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance *American Association for Health Education *American Association for the History of Medicine *American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy *American Association of Blood Banks *American Association of Diabetes Educators *American Association of Endodontists American Association of Kidney Patients *American Association of Pastoral Counselors *American Association of Plastic Surgeons Trustworthy Sources of Information 527 *American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists *American Association of Suicidology American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) *American Board of Medical Specialties *American Burn Association American Cancer Society American Childhood Cancer Association *American College Health Association *American College of Cardiology *American Counseling Association *American Society of Clinical Oncology *American College of Gastroenterology *American College of Health Care Administrators *American College of Healthcare Executives *American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists *American College of Physicians *American College of Radiology *American College of Rheumatology *American College of Sports Medicine *American College of Surgeons American Council on Science and Health *American Dental Association American Diabetes Association *American Epilepsy Society American Federation of HomeCare Providers American Foundation for AIDS Research American Foundation for the Blind *American Geriatrics Society American Group Psychotherapy Association *American Headache Society *American Health Care Association (nursing home standards) American Heart Association *American Hospital Association *American Industrial Hygiene Association American Kidney Fund American Liver Foundation American Lung Association *American Medical Association *American Medical Women’s Association American Mental Health Counselors Association *American Nurses Association *American Occupational Therapy Association *American Optometric Association American Pain Foundation *American Physical Therapy Association *American Podiatric Medical Association *American Psychiatric Association *American Psychoanalytic Association *American Psychological Association *American Public Health Association American Red Cross American Running Association *American School Health Association American SIDS Institute *American Sleep Disorders Association American Social Health Association (venereal disease) *American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery *American Society for Nutrition *American Society for Reproductive Medicine *American Society for Surgery of the Hand *American Society of Clinical Hypnosis *American Society of Clinical Oncology *American Society of Hematology *American Society of Law, Medicine, and Ethics *American Society of Plastic Surgeons *American Speech-Language-Hearing Association *American Thyroid Association American Tinnitus Association *American Urological Association *American Veterinary Medical Association Americans for Medical Progress (harm caused by “animal rights” groups) Americans for Nonsmokers’ Rights Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Association Anxiety Disorders Association of America Aplastic Anemia and MDS International Foundation The Arc of the United States (mental retardation) Arthritis Foundation (avoid information on “complementary” and “alternative” methods) *Association for Ambulatory Behavioral Healthcare *Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Association for Macular Diseases Association for Science in Autism Treatment Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America Attention Deficit Disorder Association *Better Hearing Institute Bioethics Watch *BlueCross BlueShield Association Cancer Care Center for Studying Health System Change Center for the Study of Services Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Childbirth Connection Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Children of Aging Parents Children’s Healthcare Is a Legal Duty (CHILD) Children’s Leukemia Research Association Citizens for Responsible Care and Research (CIRCARE) Cleft Palate Association Coalition Against Insurance Fraud Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) *Commonwealth Foundation Compassionate Friends Consumers Union Contraceptive Choices Cooley’s Anemia Foundation *Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) *Council of Better Business Bureaus Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America Cystic Fibrosis Foundation *Delta Dental Plans Association (dental insurance) Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance Drug Policy Alliance Dysautonomia Foundation Dystonia Medical Research Foundation Easter Seals National Headquarters *ECRI (medical devices, technology, and patient safety) Endometriosis Association EngenderHealth (women’s health issues) Epilepsy Foundation Euthanasia Research and Guidance Organization Eye Bank Association of America False Memory Syndrome Foundation *Federation of Societies for Experimental Biology Appendix528 Federation of State Medical Boards *Food and Nutrition Board, National Academies Foundation Fighting Blindness Funeral Consumers Alliance *Gerontological Society of America Glaucoma Research Foundation Guttmacher Institute (family planning and women’s health issues) Health Policy Institute (Georgetown University) Huntington’s Disease Society of America Institute for Science in Medicine *Institute of Food Technologists Institute of Medicine (IOM) International AIDS Vaccine Initiative International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers (IAMAT) International Association of Laryngectomees International Center for Toxicology and Medicine International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) International Dyslexia Association International Food Information Council Foundation *International Hearing Society *International Life Sciences Institute (nutrition, toxicology, technology risk assessment) Interstitial Cystitis Association James Randi Educational Foundation (investigation of paranormal claims) JED Foundation (mental health help for college students) *Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Joslin Diabetes Center Juvenile Diabetes Foundation Kaiser Family Foundation La Leche League International (breastfeeding) LeadingAge (formerly American Association of Homes and Services for the Aging) Leukemia & Lymphoma Society Little People of America Living Bank (organ donor registry) Lupus Foundation of America March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation Medic Alert Foundation International (emergency medical information services) Mental Health America Muscular Dystrophy Association Museum of Questionable Medical Devices Myasthenia Gravis Foundation *NAADAC, the Association for Addiction Professionals National Academy Press National Alliance on Mental Illness *National Association for Chiropractic Medicine National Association for Continence *National Association for Home Care and Hospice National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders National Association of Area Agencies on Aging National Association of Attorneys General National Association of the Deaf *National Association of Social Workers National Ataxia Foundation (loss of muscle coordination and balance) National Breast Cancer Coalition National Center for Fluoridation National Center for Nutrition and Dietetics National Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Association National Committee for Quality Assurance National Consumers League National Council on Aging National Council on Patient Information and Education *National Dairy Council National Down Syndrome Congress National Family Caregivers Association National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association National Federation of the Blind National Foundation for Infectious Diseases National Fraud Information Center *National Funeral Directors Association National Headache Foundation *National Health Council National Hemophilia Foundation *National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization National Kidney Foundation National Marfan Foundation National Multiple Sclerosis Society National Neurofibromatosis Foundation National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD) National Organization on Disability National Osteoporosis Foundation *National Parkinson Foundation National Psoriasis Foundation National Safety Council National Scoliosis Foundation National Sleep Foundation National Spasmatic Torticollis Association National Spinal Cord Injury Association National Stroke Association National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association New England Skeptical Society Obsessive Compulsive Foundation Oncolink (cancer database) Oregon Fibromyalgia Foundation Osteogenesis Imperfecta Foundation Paget Foundation Parkinson’s Disease Foundation Physicians for a National Health Program (PNHP) Planned Parenthood Federation of America Prevent Blindness America Prevent Child Abuse America Public Citizen Health Research Group Resolve (infertility) Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Scleroderma Foundation Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) Sickle Cell Disease Association of America Sjogren’s Syndrome Foundation Skeptics Society *Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis *Society for Public Health Education Spina Bifida Association of America Tourette Syndrome Association *Trauma Center Association of America Tuberous Sclerosis Alliance United Cerebral Palsy United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) United Ostomy Associations of America *United States Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc. (drug publications) U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Glossary Glossary530 accreditation: Approval by a recognized accrediting agency that a facility meets its standards. Hospitals and other health-care fa- cilities are accredited by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Colleges and professional schools are accredited by agencies approved by the U.S. Secretary of Education or the Council on Recognition of Postsecondary Ac- creditation (CORPA). The Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) manages the accreditation system for continuing education for physicians. acetaminophen: Nonprescription drug used to relieve pain and reduce fever; the active ingredient in Tylenol. acidosis: State in which the blood is more acidic than normal. activities of daily living (ADLs): Term used to gauge how well people can meet their basic physical needs. The five areas usu- ally considered are bathing, dressing, eating, toileting (includes whether or not the person is incontinent), and transferring (ability to get from place to place). acupressure (shiatsu): Technique that uses surface stimulation by hand instead of needles at “acupuncture points.” acupuncture: System of treatment purported to balance the body’s qi (“life force”) by inserting needles (or using other procedures) at points on alleged channels called “meridians.” acute condition: Condition that has a rapid onset and follows a short but relatively severe course. addiction: Persistent, habitual pattern of behavioral excess in which an activity (such as drug taking, eating, or gambling) becomes central to a person’s way of life despite its adverse consequences. administrative complaint: Complaint alleging that a law has been broken, which can lead to a formal hearing before an administra- tive law judge. administrative medicine: Occupation that encompasses the op- eration and management of organizations and institutions such as health departments, hospitals, clinics, and health-care plans. adrenaline (epinephrine): Hormone, produced and stored by the adrenal glands, which can cause increased heartbeat and other reactions that prepare the body to meet emergency situations. advance directive: Document in which a person states choices for medical treatment or designates who should make treatment choices if the person should lose decision-making capacity. aerobic exercise: Exercise that requires oxygen to fully metabolize glucose. Aerobic exercise promotes cardiorespiratory fitness. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome): Disease, caused by the human immunodeficiency virus, in which the body’s im- mune system breaks down, leaving the body susceptible to certain infections and uncommon cancers. alkalosis: State in which the blood pH is more alkaline than normal. allergen: Substance that produces an allergic reaction. allergic reaction: Excessive reaction of the body’s immune system to a food, drug, or other substance that is ordinarily harmless. In susceptible individuals, exposure to an allergen can cause certain cells to release histamine, which can cause sneezing, wheezing, hives, and other reactions. allopathy: Term coined by Samuel Hahnemann (founder of home- opathy) to designate medical practices based on the ancient Greek humoral theories that symptoms should be treated with opposites. (Many of his contemporaries, for example, used bloodletting to treat fevers that supposedly represented an excess of “blood hu- mor.”) Allopathy has been displaced by medical science, but the term is often used incorrectly to describe modern medical practice. alopecia: Medical term for baldness. “alternative” health care: Misleading term used to characterize many types of unscientific methods. Since ineffective methods are not true alternatives to effective ones, the terms “unscientific” or “dubious” are more appropriate. AMA: Abbreviation for American Medical Association. ambulatory health care: All types of health services provided to patients who are not confined to an institutional bed during the time the services are rendered; also called outpatient care. amino acid: Building block of proteins. anabolism: The phase of metabolism in which simple substances are synthesized into the complex materials of living tissue (e.g., proteins from amino acids). anaerobic exercise: Intense exercise, such as sprinting, that gener- ates energy by converting glucose to lactic acid, which does not require oxygen. analgesia: Pain relief. analgesic, external: Drug applied to the skin to relieve pain. analgesic, internal: Pain reliever designed to be taken by mouth or injected. anaphylactic shock: A sudden, life-threatening allergic reaction characterized by a sharp drop in blood pressure, difficulty breath- ing, and hives. androgenic steroid: A steroid hormone, such as testosterone or androsterone, that controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics. anecdotal evidence: Brief accounts of personal observations that have not been well documented. anesthesia: Loss of sensation, with or without loss of consciousness. angioplasty: Reconstruction of a blood vessel. anorexia: Loss of appetite. anorexia nervosa: Dangerous condition in which victims lose in- terest in eating and become dangerously thin; usually associated with false beliefs about being too fat. antacid: Over-the-counter product used to neutralize hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach. anthroposophical medicine: Practices based on an occult philoso- phy said to relate man to his natural environment, with emphasis on color and rhythm. antibodies: Protein molecules produced in the blood or tissues in response to a specific antigen, such as a bacterium, virus, or toxin. Antibodies destroy or weaken foreign invaders and neutralize organic poisons, thus forming the basis of immunity. antigen: Substance that, as a result of coming in contact with ap- propriate tissues of an animal body, induces antibody formation. antihistamine: Drug that counteracts histamine, a substance re- leased during allergic reactions that can cause localized redness, edema, and mucus production. antimicrobial: Any substance that kills germs or inhibits their growth. antioxidant: Agent that inhibits oxidation and thus prevents rancidity of oils or fats or the deterioration of other substances through oxidative processes. The best-known antioxidants are vitamins A, C, and E; beta-carotene; and the food preservatives BHA and BHT. antipruritic: Substance that prevents or relieves itching. antipyretic: Drug that reduces fever. antiseptic: Substance that prevents the growth of disease-causing microorganisms in or on living tissues. Antiseptics are used mainly to kill germs on the skin before puncturing the skin (for tests or injections) or surgery. aphrodisiac: Substance claimed to increase sexual stimulation. aplastic anemia: Life-threatening disorder in which the bone marrow fails to produce adequate numbers of circulating blood cells. Glossary 531 applied kinesiology: Pseudoscience based on the belief that every organ dysfunction is accompanied by a specific muscle weakness. arrhythmia: Irregular heart rhythm. arteriosclerosis: Chronic disease characterized by hardening and thickening of artery walls. arthroscopy: Minimally invasive procedure in which an examina- tion and sometimes treatment of damage of the interior of a joint is performed using an arthroscope, a type of endoscope that is inserted into the joint through a small incision. aseptic: Devoid of microorganisms. assisted living: Term used to describe various types of residential facilities that offer help with activities of daily living in a home- like atmosphere. astigmatism: Uneven curvature of the cornea or surface of the lens of the eye, which distorts vision by preventing proper focus of light rays on the retina. asymptomatic: Symptom-free. atherosclerosis: Accumulation of deposits of cholesterol and fibrous tissue within the inner walls of large and medium-sized arteries; extensive buildup can result in blockage of the artery. autism: A developmental disorder characterized by problems in social interaction, communication, and restrictive and repetitive interests and activities. It is most often identified between the ages of 18 and 30 months. autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Term used to describe a group of pervasive developmental disorders that includes autism, As- perger’s syndrome, and other conditions that resemble autism but are not as severe. autointoxication: Unfounded notion that intestinal contents stagnate and putrefy to form toxins that are absorbed by the body and cause chronic poisoning. autonomic nervous system: Components of the nervous system that regulate many functions of the body that require no conscious effort. Autonomic nerves control the heart, smooth muscles, and glands. ayurvedic medicine: Practices said to be based on a traditional Indian approach that combines herbs, “purifying” therapies, and “rejuvenation” techniques. balance billing: Billing a patient for charges exceeding the amount approved by the patient’s insurance carrier. balanced diet: Selection of a wide variety of foods from each of the food groups. bile: Yellow or greenish fluid secreted by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and passed into the small intestine, where it helps in the digestion and absorption of fats. bioavailability: The extent to which a drug or nutrient becomes available within the body to affect metabolic and/or physiologic reactions. bioequivalent: Term used to describe drug products with equivalent absorption and blood levels. biofeedback: Relaxation technique using an electronic device that continuously signals pulse rate, muscle tension, or other body function by tone or visual signal. bioflavonoid: Pigmented substance, not essential in humans, once thought to have vitamin activity. No evidence exists that biofla- vonoids are useful for the treatment of any human ailment. biologic product: Preparation, such as a drug or antitoxin, that is synthesized from living organisms or their products and used medically as a diagnostic, preventive, or therapeutic agent. biopsy: Removal and examination of a sample of tissue from a living patient for diagnosis or prognosis. biorhythms: Pseudoscientific notion that human performance and susceptibilities can be predicted by charting three biologic rhythms said to begin at the moment of birth. biotechnology: Use of living organisms or their products to make or modify a substance. bipolar illness: See manic-depressive psychosis. BMI (body mass index): Measure for classifying obesity, calculated by dividing a person’s weight in kilograms by the square of the person’s height in meters. board-certified specialist: Health professional who has completed accredited training and passed an examination given by a recon- ized specialty board. board-eligible: Person who has the required training and experi- ence to take a certifying examination but has not taken or has not passed the examination. Although the American Board of Medical Specialties has officially abandoned the term, it is still in common use. bodywork: Umbrella term for practices that include manual mas- sage, manipulation, or exercise of body parts. bone scan: Diagnostic procedure in which a radioactive substance is injected intravenously and the image of its distribution to the bones is analyzed to detect certain diseases or conditions, most notably cancer. bran: Outer coat of a cereal grain. Bran contains significant amounts of fiber and several nutrients. cadaver: Dead body, especially one intended for dissection. calculus: Hard substance, such as a kidney stone, gallstone, or the hard substance (calcified plaque) that can accumulate on the surface of teeth. calorie: Unit that expresses the amount of energy the body is able to get from foods. Carbohydrates and proteins provide about four calories per gram, fats provide about nine calories per gram, and alcohol provides about seven calories per gram. candidiasis hypersensitivity: Bogus diagnosis based on the notion that multiple common symptoms are the result of sensitivity to the common fungus Candida albicans. capitation: Method of paying health-care providers according to the number of patients they agree to serve rather than the amount of service rendered per visit. caplet: Drug tablet shaped like a capsule. carcinogenic: Cancer-causing. carcinoma: Malignant tumor of the epithelium. Epithelial cells form the outer layer of the skin and line the gastrointestinal tract, the genitourinary tract, the glands, and other free surfaces within the body. carcinoma in situ: Cancer that lies within the epithelium and has not invaded adjacent tissues. See carcinoma. cardiorespiratory efficiency: Ability of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs to deliver oxygen to body parts. cardiovascular: Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels. caries (dental): Tooth decay. carotene: Yellow pigment found in various plant and animal tis- sues that is the precursor of vitamin A. An excessive amount of carotene can cause carotenemia, a condition in which the skin turns yellow. catabolism: Metabolic breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, often resulting in a release of energy. cataract: Cloudiness of the lens of the eye. caveat emptor: Phrase meaning, “Let the buyer beware.” caveat vendor: Phrase meaning, “Let the seller beware.” CCRC: Abbreviation for continuing care retirement community, a facility that provides residents with health-related services pursuant to a contract either for life or a specified time period. Glossary532 cease and desist order: Order given by a court or regulatory agency to stop unlawful activity. cellulite: Medically unrecognized term commonly used to describe dimpled fat commonly found on the thighs of women. cellulose: Main component of plant cell walls. A component of dietary fiber, cellulose absorbs water readily and helps make stools bulkier and softer. cervix: Lower part of the uterus. An opening in the cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. chakras: Alleged “energy centers” of the body that collect prana, the “life force” postulated in yoga (Hindu) philosophy. CHAMPUS: Abbreviation for Civilian Health and Medical Pro- gram of the Uniformed Services, a federal insurance program for military dependents and retirees. chemosurgery: Use of caustic chemicals to remove diseased or unwanted tissue. Chinese medicine, traditional (TCM): Collection of practices that includes acupuncture, the use of herbs and dietary procedures, pulse diagnosis, and other procedures. chiropractic: Conglomeration of practices, most of which are based on the faulty notion that spinal problems are the cause, or an underlying cause, of most health problems (see Chapter 9). cholesterol level: Concentration of cholesterol in the blood, a factor that can help indicate the risk of heart disease. chronic condition: Problem that lasts for a long period (at least 3 months) or recurs frequently. chronic fatigue syndrome: Illness in which profound fatigue persists or recurs for at least 6 months and is accompanied by several flu-like symptoms, such as throat inflammation, lymph node enlargement, low fever, muscle and joint pains, headache, difficulty in concentrating, and exercise intolerance. civil procedure: Noncriminal legal action such as an administrative hearing or a civil court action. clinical: Related to the treatment or examination of patients (e.g., clinical study, clinical practice, clinical psychology). clinical ecology: Pseudoscience based on a false belief that scores of symptoms are triggered by a global hypersensitivity to common foods and chemicals. clinical trial: Investigation done to assess the safety and efficacy of a product (such as a drug) or medical procedure on humans. closed-panel HMO: Insurance plan that covers services only from specified providers. coagulate: To change from a liquid to a solid or gel; to clot. co-insurance: Partial payment beyond the deductible required from the policyholder for services rendered. colonic irrigation: “High-colonic” enema performed with a rub- ber tube inserted beyond the rectum. Large amounts of water are pumped in and out through the tube. The procedure is used without justification by proponents of “autointoxication.” colonoscope: Instrument passed through the rectum to examine nearly the entire length of the large intestine. comedo: Plug of dead cells and sebum within a hair follicle; the primary lesion of acne. “complementary medicine”: Term used to refer to nonstandard methods used in addition to (but not instead of) standard treat- ments. complete protein: Protein that contains significant levels of all of the essential amino acids. complex carbohydrates (starches): Compounds composed of long chains of glucose molecules. compounding: Creation of a drug product by mixing ingredients. comprehensive health insurance: Broad coverage that includes most medical and surgical services in both inpatient and outpa- tient settings. conditioner: Hair product intended to restore oils, sheen, elasticity, and manageability after washing. confidentiality: Ethical principle that information disclosed during the course of treatment may not be revealed without the patient’s consent. confirmatory test: Follow-up test after a positive result from an initial screening test. Confirmatory tests are usually more complex and expensive and often are more invasive than initial screening tests. congenital: Present at birth. consent decree (or order): Court-approved agreement (usually to stop behavior that has been challenged by a regulatory agency) that has the force of law. Consumer Bill of Rights: Principles devised by President John F. Kennedy, who stated that consumers have the right to safety, to be informed, to choose, and to be heard. consumer health: All aspects of personal enhancement, health maintenance, and consumer protection related to the intelligent purchase and use of health products and services. continuing medical education (CME): Postgraduate educational activities aimed at maintaining, updating, and extending profes- sional skills. Many professional organizations, state licensing boards, and hospitals require CME participation. contraceptive: Substance or device used to prevent pregnancy. contracture: Abnormal (usually permanent) shortening of a muscle or scar tissue. A contracture can cause deformity and loss of joint mobility. contraindication: Factor that makes it inadvisable to administer a drug or carry out a medical procedure. coordination of benefits: Insurance policy provision that prohibits collecting benefits from two or more policies for medical care, thereby preventing policyholders from profiting from being ill. After the primary company pays, other companies will calculate their coverage of the remainder. All group policies contain a coordination clause, but most individual policies do not. COPD: Abbreviation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. cornea: Transparent, outermost portion of the front of the eyeball. coronary: Pertaining to the heart. coronary heart disease (CHD): heart disease caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. corrective lenses: Eyeglasses or contact lenses that enable images to be focused on the retina. cosmetics: Substances intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on the body to cleanse, increase attractiveness, or alter appearance. cost-effective: Providing adequate benefit in return for its cost. counterirritant: Substance that produces mild irritation of the skin that distracts attention from, and thus relieves, the discomfort of a deeper structure. CPT codes: A system of code numbers for medical services and procedures. The numbers, which are used for insurance billing, are revised quarterly and are published annually in a book called Physicians’ Current Procedural Terminology. crown: Portion of the tooth normally visible above the gum line. cryosurgery: Destruction of diseased or unwanted tissues by freezing. CT scan: Imaging method in which the density of an area of the body is determined by feeding x-ray data into a computer to create a picture on a screen similar to a cross-sectional photograph; used to study body structures. Also called CAT scan. Glossary 533 cult: Any system that encourages obsessive devotion to a person, an ideal, or a set of dogmatic beliefs. cystoscope: Instrument used to look inside the bladder and urinary passageway (urethra). Daily Reference Values (DRVs): System of food component stan- dards intended to help consumers select food by reading labels wisely (see Chapter 10). database: Organized compilation of information, usually maintained in a computer system. decongestant: Drug that constricts blood vessels and membranes of the nose to relieve stuffiness. deductible: Amount paid out of pocket before insurance coverage takes effect. defensive medicine: Medically questionable use of procedures (such as x-ray examinations following minor head injuries) to protect the doctor in the event of a malpractice suit. defibrillator: Device used to administer an electric shock to restart a heart that has stopped beating. delusion: False belief, not ordinarily accepted by other members of the person’s culture, that is firmly held despite obvious proof or evidence to the contrary. dementia: Chronic mental deterioration characterized by disorienta- tion; confusion; and impaired memory, judgment, and intellect. dentifrice: Toothpaste, gel, or powder used in brushing teeth. denturist: Technician who provides dentures directly to the public without supervision or referral from a dentist. Denturism is illegal in most states. dermabrasion: Process that removes the upper layers of the skin to improve the appearance of scars. dermatitis: Inflammation of the skin. diathermy: Generation of heat in tissue by electric currents for medical or surgical purposes. Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA): General guidelines, developed by the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services, for people who want to decrease their chances of developing certain chronic diseases (see Chapter 10). Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Four sets of values that define what is known about the ranges of safe and adequate consumption of individual nutrients (see pages 181-182). dietary supplement: See food supplement. dilate: Expand or widen. diopter: Unit of measurement of the refracting power of lenses; the reciprocal of the focal length (in meters). Nearsightedness is designated with negative numbers (e.g., -3.00 D), whereas farsightedness is designated with positive numbers. diploma mill: Nonaccredited organization that awards degrees and/or diplomas without requiring its students to meet educational standards for degrees established and traditionally followed by reputable educational institutions. Diploma mills that offer de- grees are also referred to as degree mills. diplomate: Person who has passed an examination given by the National Board of Medical Examiners, a recognized examining or specialty board, or other recognized certifying body. direct response advertising: Advertising that provides a phone number for further information or purchase of a product. disorientation: State of confusion about time, location, or personal identity. diuretic: Drug that increases the output of urine. DNR: Abbreviation for “Do Not Resuscitate,” a medical order to refrain from cardiopulmonary resuscitation if a patient’s heart stops beating. doctrine of signatures: Prescientific principle that the external characteristics (such as shape) of a plant, animal, or other entity signal its magical or healing properties and that relationships exist between the appearance of a source of medicine and the diseases against which it is effective. dose-response: Gradient response in which exposure to progres- sively stronger doses produces a progressively greater effect. Two examples are increased sedation with higher doses of sleeping pills, and lung cancer rates that correlate with the number of packs of cigarettes smoked per day. double-blind test: Experiment in which neither the experimental subjects nor those responsible for the treatment or data collection know which subjects receive the treatment being tested and which receive something else (such as a placebo). DRGs (diagnosis-related groups): Categories created under Medi- care for payment of hospital bills according to the patient’s diag- nosis rather than the actual length of stay or treatment rendered. DRIs: See Dietary Reference Intakes. drug (under federal law): Any substance intended to be used for preventing, curing, mitigating, or treating a disease. durable medical equipment: Long-lasting piece of equipment, such as a cane, wheelchair, respirator, or electric hospital bed. dysmenorrhea: Menstrual pain. DRVs: See Daily Reference Values. economies of scale: Cost savings resulting from aggregation of resources or mass production. ECT: Abbreviation for electroconvulsive treatment. edema: Swelling of tissues as a result of the presence of abnormally large amounts of