4 questions | Applied Sciences homework help

1. tolerable uPPer intaKe leVel (ul): The maximum intake that is unlikely to pose risks of adverse health effects in almost all healthy individuals in a specified group. The UL is not a recommended level of intake, and there is no established benefit for individuals to consume nutrients at levels above the RDA or AI. The term “tolerable upper intake level” was chosen to avoid implying a possible beneficial effect. For most nutrients, it refers to total intake from food, fortified food, and supplements.

The DRIs are intended to apply to the healthy general population. The RDAs and AIs refer to average daily in- take over 1 or more weeks. They may not be sufficient to supply individuals who are already malnourished or who have a disease state marked by increased requirements. Individuals in these categories, or who have increased sensitivity to developing adverse effects associated with higher intakes, should be guided by qualified medical and nutrition personnel. Intake less than the RDA does not necessarily mean that a given individual is not getting enough of that nutri- ent. Half the RDA is usually sufficient. Healthy people who meet the AI have a low risk of inadequate intake. However, an intake well below the RDA or AI would be a reason to assess the individual’s nutritional status through laboratory testing or clinical examination. In many cases, various levels of intake can have different benefits. One level may be related to the risk of deficiency, for example, whereas another level can sodium, solid fats, added sugars, and refined grains and emphasizes nutrient-dense foods and beverages—veg- etables, fruits, whole grains, fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products, seafood, lean meats and poultry, eggs, beans and peas, and nuts and seeds. For most Americans, this will involve shifting to a more plant-based diet. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) The DRIs are nutrient-based reference values for use in planning and assessing diets. They are an expansion of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) that the National Academy of Sciences has published since 1941. They have been determined by the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes of the Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine (IOM), National Academy of Sciences, with help from Health Canada (Canada’s federal health department). The National Academy Press published the DRIs as a series of seven books released between 1997 and 2004.10 The first covers nutrients related to bone health (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride). The second covers folate and other B vitamins. The third is about antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids). The others cover macronutrients (e.g., protein, fat, carbohydrates); trace elements (e.g., iron, zinc); electrolytes and water; and other food components (e.g., fiber, phytoestrogens). The DRIs for calcium and vitamin D were revised in 2010.10 The reports can be read online free-of-charge or purchased at a discount at www.nap.edu. The RDAs, published periodically since 1941, have been the benchmark of nutritional adequacy in the United States.11 More than 20 years ago, they were defined as: “The levels of intake of essential nutrients that, on the basis of scientific knowledge, are judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of practically all healthy persons.” Since that time, scientific knowledge about the roles of nu- trients has expanded dramatically. Many studies have examined relationships between diet and chronic disease. The Food and Nutrition Board has responded to these developments by changing its basic approach to setting nutrient reference values. The DRIs reflect a shift in emphasis from prevent- ing deficiency to decreasing the risk of chronic disease through nutrition. The RDAs were based on the amounts needed to protect against deficiency diseases. Where adequate scientific data exist, the DRIs include levels that can help prevent cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, certain cancers, and other diseases that are diet-related. Instead of a single category, the DRIs encompass four. Part Three Nutrition and Fitness182 influence the risk of chronic disease. Therefore, “nutrient adequacy” should be expressed in terms of “Adequate for what?” For this reason, the DRIs are far more elaborate than the RDAs and cannot be expressed in a simple table of values. A sensible diet can provide adequate amounts of all essential nutrients. Most individuals do not need supple- mentary vitamins, minerals, protein, or amino acids. However, as noted later in this chapter, a few nutrients may need special attention. Food-group sYsteMs The fundamental principles of healthful eating are mod- eration, variety, and balance. Healthful eating should also be psychologically satisfying and pleasing to the senses. A diet is balanced if it contains appropriate amounts of each nutrient. Food guides enable consum- ers to select foods from groups of nutritionally related foods rather than having to calculate the amount of each nutrient in each individual portion. Such guides, which specify the size and number of servings needed daily from each group to provide nutritional adequacy, have been published since 1916 by the USDA and various nongovernmental agencies.13 During the past two decades, the food-group systems have incorporated the principles of the U.S. Dietary Guidelines. The 2010 version9 uses five groups: fruit grouP includes all fresh, frozen, canned, and dried fruits and fruit juices. In general, 1 cup of fruit or 100% fruit juice, or ½ cup of dried fruit can be considered as 1 cup from the fruit group. Vegetable grouP includes all fresh, frozen, canned, and dried vegetables and vegetable juices. In general, 1 cup of raw or cooked vegetables or vegetable juice, or 2 cups of raw leafy greens can be considered as 1 cup from the vegetable group. grains grouP includes any food made from wheat, rice, oats, cornmeal, barley, or another cereal grain. Bread, pasta, oatmeal, breakfast cereals, tortillas, and grits are examples. In general, 1 slice of bread, 1 cup of ready-to-eat cereal, or ½ cup of cooked rice, pasta, or cooked cereal can be considered as 1 ounce equivalent from the grains group. At least half of all grains consumed should be whole grains. Protein fooDs grouP includes all foods made from meat, poul- try, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products, and nuts. Beans and peas are also part of the Vegetable Group. In general, 1 ounce of lean meat, poultry, or fish, 1 egg, 1 Tbsp. peanut butter, ¼ cup cooked dry beans, or ½ ounce of nuts or seeds can be considered as 1 ounce equivalents from the meat and beans group. Dairy grouP includes all fluid milk products and many foods made from milk. Most Dairy Group choices should be fat-free or low-fat. Foods made from milk that retain their calcium content are part of the group. Foods made from milk that have little to no calcium, such as cream cheese, cream, and butter, are not. Calcium-fortified soymilk (soy beverage) is also part of the Dairy Group. In general, 1 cup of milk or yogurt, 1½ ounces of natural cheese, or 2 ounces of processed cheese can be considered as 1 cup from the milk group. A variety of foods should be chosen within each group. The recommended intakes depend on the indi- vidual’s activity level. Nutrient and energy contribu- tions from each group are based on the amounts in the nutrient-dense forms of foods in each group. Nutrient density can be expressed as nutrients per calorie. Nutrient-dense foods provide substantial amounts of vitamins and minerals (micronutrients) and relatively few calories. Such foods (a) are naturally rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals (plant chemicals), (b) are lean or low in solid fats, (c) do not have added solid fats, sugars, starches, or sodium, and (d) retain naturally occurring components such as fiber. All vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fish, eggs, and nuts prepared without added solid fats or sugars are consid- ered nutrient-dense, as are lean or low-fat forms of fluid milk, meat, and poultry prepared without added solid fats or sugars. √ Consumer Tip Biochemical Individuality Victor Herbert, M.D.12, a member of the 1980–1985 RDA committee, has noted: To promote supplements, health hustlers misrepresent the concept of “biochemical individuality” (our genetic blueprint) to imply that individuals should consume more than the RDAs in case they have greater-than- average needs. . . . RDAs are deliberately set higher than virtually all normal people require in order to encompass the range of individual variations. . . . In other words, biochemical individuality has been taken into account. Many high-priced (usually high-dose) supplements are supposedly formulated to meet the “special” needs of athletes, executives, or others categorized by activities or age. The intended target group is suggested by the product’s name (for example, Coach’s Formula, Exec- 30, Teenplex, Ger-E-Time). Some RDA-level products designed for men, women, or individuals older than 50 are rationally formulated. However, the idea that many segments of the American population have “special” needs that make supplementation advisable has no scientific foundation (see Chapter 11). Chapter Ten Basic Nutrition Concepts 183 evaluatiNg Your diet The Internet-based USDA Food Guidance System offers practical ways to plan and evaluate your diet. Interactive pages on the www.choosemyplate.gov site enable users to key in their age, gender, and physical activity level to get personalized recommendations for their daily calorie intake and suggestions for making wise choices from each food group. Versions for children 6 to 11 years old and their teachers are also available. Figure 10-1 shows the MyPlate symbol and 10 basic principles of the Food Guidance System. ChooseMyPlate.gov also offers a dietary assessment and links to nutrient information. After providing a day’s worth of dietary information, the user receives an overall evaluation that compares the amounts of food consumed to current nutritional guidelines. To better understand their diet over time, registered users can track what they eat for up to 1 year. There is also a physical activity as- sessment that is accompanied by detailed advice. Other Internet-based computer programs and soft- ware for dietary analysis vary greatly in quality and ease of use and may require the user to spend considerable time and effort to measure portion sizes and enter the data. The best programs are user-friendly and include a large database of brand-name foods. guideliNes For iNFaNts aNd toddlers The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recom- mends that nearly all infants be breast-fed and that breast-feeding continue for at least 12 months and thereafter for as long as mutually desired by mother and child.14 For infants who are not breast-fed, or who are Figure 10-1. Symbol and basic principles of the new USDA Food Guidance System. Choose MyPlate 10 tips to a great plate Making food choices for a healthy lifestyle can be as simple as using these 10 Tips. Use the ideas in this list to balance your calories, to choose foods to eat more often, and to cut back on foods to eat less often.