Activity 1 | Human Resource Management homework help

2. In some studies, the workers were consulted, and allowed to

discussed with others before any changes were made → respects and group dynamics

THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES - IMPLICATIONS

A change in the views of workers: They are not isolated, unrelated individuals; they are social beings and their behaviors are affected by: Personal and social conditioning – values, hopes, fears, expectations Human satisfaction derived from his or her social participation with coworkers and supervisors. Researchers started to explore informal employee groups/teams and the social functions that occur within group and influence the behavior of the individual group members. Demonstrate the important influence of human factors on worker productivity (Borkowski 2005, pp.7-8; Shafritz et al. 2016, p. 295-296) 10

THE HUMAN RELATION MOVEMENT

MARY PARKER FOLLET & PARTICIPATORY

MANAGEMENT

Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933) Life: American social worker focusing on the related issues of community Ideas: Mother of Modern management—emphasizing on human elements in organizations “The giving of orders”—micromanagement and human relations Issue: issuing of orders is surrounded by many difficulties Three to-do things: (1) build up certain attitudes, (2) provide for the release of these attitudes, (3) augment the releases response as it is being carried out Main arguments: (1) one person should not give orders to another person, but both should agree to take their orders from the situation, (2) scientific management: it tends to depersonalized orders, (3) the order should be the law of the situation, (4) the situation is always evolving, and (5) orders should involve circular not linear behavior

MARY PARKER FOLLET & PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT

Mary Parker Follet’s contribution Background: the emphasis of orthodoxy was mainly macro Micro issue: how individuals within organizations operated and how decisions were made Hawthorne experiments in 1920s as the genesis of the human relations school Follet’s contribution As a major voice of “participatory management” The advantages of exercising “power” as opposed to “power over” Law of the situation Draws attention to the problems caused when superior-subordinate roles inhibit the productivity of the organization Was one of the first to focus on the theory of individual within organizations Workers should be more responsive to peer pressure than to management controls

HUMAN RELATIONS AND 1950S

Why 1950s?

MCGREGOR: “THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE (1957)”

Background: How to utilize the social science to make our human organization truly effective? The conventional view—Theory X Propositions: (1) management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise in the interest of economic end, (2) management is a process of directing people’s efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior, (3) people would be passive to organizational needs—needed to be controlled, persuaded, and rewarded Assumptions: (1) people are naturally indolent, (2) people lack ambition, (3) people are self-centered, (4) people resist to change Challenges to conventional views Mistaken notion of causation: Behavior is not a consequence of man’s inherent nature, it is a consequence rather of the nature of industrial organizations, of management practice New focus: Management has provided for physiological and safety needs → management need to focus on social and egoistic needs Carrot-and-stick theory: does not work at all once man has reached an adequate subsistence level and is motivated by higher needs

MCGREGOR: “THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISE (1957)”

Theory Y

Proposition:

(1) people are not nature passive or resistant to organizational needs, (2) people have become so as a result of experience in orgs, (3) management needs to recognize and develop these human characteristics, (4) management need to assure that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives, (5) management by objectives V.S. management by control, (6) rely on self-direction and self-control

Suggestions:

(1) decentralization and delegation, (2) job enlargement: encouraging the acceptance of responsibility at the bottom of organization, focusing on social and egoistic needs, (3) participation and consultative management, (4) performance appraisal An articulation of the basic assumptions of the organizational behavioral perspective Hawthorne studies → human factors in the group/team level McGregor’s Theories → how individual differences in terms of their personality, needs, motivation and attitudes may interact with different managing styles and practices in affecting individual level outcomes. Like Simon, McGregor pointed out the absurdity of maintaining universal principles of organizational arrangements These differing philosophic orientations are extremes for purposes of example, most work situations would require a mix rather than a simplistic acceptance of either construct.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF MCGREGOR’S THEORIES

MOTIVATION

MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP

What is motivation? What are the different types of motivations/ motivational theories? What is the importance of motivational research in public organizations?

CLASS ACTIVITY I: MANAGER’S NIGHTMARE

Imagine you are the manager of a college sports or debate team and face the following situation: You are dissatisfied with team performance, as some members are not putting in enough effort. You lack resources for additional training or monetary incentives. You cannot terminate team members or alter the organizational structure, task progress, or rules. Given these constraints, how would you improve your team’s performance? Discuss your ideas with your classmates and either present your own suggestions or provide feedback on others' proposals. 20

THE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

To be motivated means to be moved to do something (Ryan & Deci, 2000) “Motivation” (noun) refers to the forces acting within individual that move us, arouse us, and direct us to do an activity (Rainey, 2009) 21

THE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION (CONT’D)

“Motivation” = “to want”, “wanting” (verb) To have or feel a need of (a desired end state); To wish or demand the presence of (a desired end state); To desire to come, go, or be; To have a strong desire for or inclination toward (like); To hunt or seek in order to seize (Higgins and Kruglanski, 2000) Motivational research As compared to “knowing” (cognition), “feeling” (affect/emotions), and “doing” (behavior) Motivational research is concerned with the nature and functions of wanting and their relation to knowing, feeling, and doing. 22

WHAT IS MOTIVATION ABOUT?

Motivation accounts for (Graham & Weiner, 1996):

The choice of behavior (i.e., what we do or what we choose to do). The latency of behavior (i.e., how long it takes before we initiate the activity) VS VS 23

WHAT IS MOTIVATION ABOUT? (CONT’D)

The intensity of behavior (i.e., how hard we actually work at the activity) The persistence of behavior (i.e., how long we are willing to remain at the activity) The cognitions and emotional reactions accompanying the behavior (i.e., what we are thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity ) VS VS Study continuously for 10 hours vs 1 hour 24

THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation varies in level (i.e., people have different amounts of motivation) The level of motivations can be changed or manipulated by environments and/or external interventions. Environment External Intervention 25

THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation varies in orientation (i.e., people have different types of motivation) People may have multiple types of motivation for an activity at the same time The salience of motivational orientations can be changed or primed by environments and/or external interventions (Levesque & Pelletier 2003) Example: What motivated you to attend this class/program? 26

MASLOW: “A THEORY OF HUMAN

MOTIVATION”

General introduction Hunger drive: the hunger drive was rejected as a centering point or model for a definitive theory of motivation Basic needs: any motivated behavior must be understood to be a channel through which many basic needs may be simultaneously expresses or satisfied—more than one motivation Hierarchy: (1) human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of prepotency, (2) the appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another, more pre-potent need, Human center: motivation theory should be human centered Goal: classifications of motivation must be based upon goals rather than upon instigating drives or motivated behavior Motivation theory is not synonymous with behavior theory 27

MASLOW: “A THEORY OF HUMAN MOTIVATION”

Maslow’s needs hierarchy The physiological needs: (1) water, food, rest, (2) at once other (and higher) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism The Safety needs: predictable The love needs: affection and belongingness needs The esteem needs: which is soundly based upon real capacity, achievement and respect from others The need for self-actualization: What a man can be, he must be. Mechanisms “Once lower needs are satisfied, they cease to be motivators of behaviors” “Conversely, higher needs cannot motivate until lower needs are satisfied” Source: (Hysa & Mansi, 2020) 28

TYPES OF

MOTIVATION

Types of motivations in the framework of Self- Determination Theory (SDT): (Ryan & Deci 2000) Intrinsic motivation: Refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable Extrinsic motivation: Refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome Source: (Cercos, 2017) 29

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence (Ryan & Deci 2000) The reward is in the activity itself (e.g., the task is interesting or meaningful) The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior (White, 1959) Robert W. White (1920-1975) One of the early intrinsic motivation theorists 30

INTRINSIC

MOTIVATION

Animals like monkeys, cats, & rats engage in exploratory, playful, and curiosity-driven behaviors even in the absence of reinforcement or reward 31

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

How to measure human’s intrinsic motivation? Self-reports of interest and enjoyment of the activity ‘‘Free choice’’ measure in laboratory experiments Participants are exposed to a task under varying conditions (e.g., getting a reward or not). After a while, the experimenter tells participants they will not be asked to work with the target task any further. The participants are then left alone in the experimental room with the target task as well as various distractor activities. It is assumed that, if there is no extrinsic reason to do the task (e.g., no reward and no approval), then the more time they spend with the target task in the “free choice” period, the more intrinsically motivated they are for that task. (Deci 1971; Ryan & Deci 2000b) 32

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Extrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity to attain (or avoid) some separable outcome. The reward is separated from the activity itself (e.g., the task may not be interesting or meaningful, but people still do it for some instrumental purposes) Extrinsic motivation is NOT equal to External incentive The separable outcome can be either positive or negative, tangible or intangible. For example: Positive – Tangible: Monetary reward Positive – Intangible: Good personal image Negative – Tangible: Punishment Negative – Intangible: Disapproval from others 33 EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Extrinsic motivation can vary greatly in its relative autonomy. For example: Students choose to study because they think it is valuable for their future career Students are forced to study to avoid punishments from their parents Source: (Ryan & Deci, 2000) 34

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTERNAL REWARDS, INTRINSIC AND

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS

Motivation Crowding Theory / Crowding-Out Effect Under particular conditions, providing external (monetary) rewards undermine intrinsic motivation and lead to a sequent decrease in supply Example: Paying for blood undermines cherished social values and would therefore reduce the motivation to donate blood (i.e., a change in the perceived nature of the activity) (Frey & Jegen 2001 ) 35

OTHER TYPES OF MOTIVATIONS: PROCESS THEORIES

Source: (Kakkos & Trivellas, 2011) 36

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Source: (Joy, 2018) 37

THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATIONAL

RESEARCH IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS

Arguments:

Work motivation is an independent variable that affect performance Work motivation is variable that mediates the influences of other factors on performance Motivations lead to different work-related behaviors that will affect performance AND other organizational outcomes. 38

MOTIVATION & PERFORMANCE

Motivation accounts for the choice, latency, intensity, persistence, and emotional reactions of work behavior. These attributes of work behavior will affect the actual output/outcome of work. The primary objective of work motivation research is to learn how to motivate employees to perform the duties and responsibility assigned by the organization (Wrigth, 2001) 39

MOTIVATION AS A MEDIATOR

Many contextual or personal factors may exert influences on work performance via the mechanism of work motivation. Example: Leadership Mechanism: Leadership→ Higher Intrinsic motivation (i.e., the work is meaningful) → Higher Performance 40

MOTIVATIONS & WORK-RELATED BEHAVIORS

Motivations account for different types of work-related behavior, either constructive or destructive, which may positively or negatively affect organizational performance or other desirable outcomes

Examples:

Prosocial (altruistic) motivation → extra-role helping behaviors Power motivation → Office politics 41

PUBLIC SERVICE

MOTIVATION

Dimensions of Public Service Motivation Attraction to public service Compassion Commitment to public value Self-sacrifice Source: (Prebble, 2014) 42

PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION—POTENTIAL IMPACTS

Source: Palma & Sepe, 2017 Source: Gan et al., 2017 43 44Source: (Das, 2023)

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