Discussion board | Applied Sciences homework help

1. Nobody likes your idea. 4. Would you hurry up and get to the point?

B. On the basis of your responses here, decide how honest strategically ambiguous statements are. If they are not completely honest, can they be considered ethical? Problems arise when insiders use their specialized vocabulary without explaining it to the uninitiated. According to one survey, people in computer support industries are the worst offenders when it comes to jargon.8 A customer shopping for a computer might be mystified by a dealer’s talk about bus speed, onboard circuitry, and data transfer rates. When the same information is translated into language the buyer can understand—the length of time it takes to download a file, for example— a sale is more likely. Certain words and phrases are used so often that they become clichés.9 As one communication expert says, they “are brief and snappy, roll off the tongue easily, and can fool us into thinking that we know what we’re talking about.”10 If you overuse buzzwords such as “mission focused,” “paradigm shift,” and “out of the box,” you run the risks of not clarifying your ideas in your own mind and not being clear to others.11 Source: Terez, T., “Eager for a Paradigm Shift? Not So Fast!” Workforce, February 2002, 26. Even in normally low-context cultures such as the United States, Canada, Israel, and Germany, indirect speech may help communicators achieve three useful goals.12 The first is to promote harmony. A group of workers who have been feuding over everything from next year’s budget to funding the office coffee supply can at least reach consensus on an abstraction like “the need to reduce waste”—a step that represents a small but important start toward greater cooperation. A second function of ambiguous speech is to soften the blow of difficult messages. Business communicators face the constant challenge of delivering bad news: “This work isn’t good enough.” “We don’t want to do business with you anymore.” While these kinds of statements may be 204 honest, they can also be brutal. Ambiguous language provides a way to deliver negative messages in way that softens their blow and makes it possible to work smoothly with the recipients in the future. For example: Brute Honesty Strategic Ambiguity This work isn’t good enough. I think the boss will want us to back up these predictions with some figures. I don’t want to work with you. Right now, I don’t see any projects on the horizon. A final function of strategic ambiguity is to make a point indirectly that cannot be expressed overtly. In today’s litigation-prone environment, business communicators often use strategic ambiguity to share critical messages without exposing themselves to lawsuits.13 For example, consider this humorous letter of reference “endorsing” a former employee who was fired for being a slow, lazy, unmotivated worker with an inflated ego and who lacked qualifications, causing the company to lose money: I am pleased to say John Doe is a former colleague of mine. John left this job the same way he came, fired with enthusiasm. We are deeply indebted for the services he has given our firm over the years. 87 John will do nothing that will lower your high regard for him. His job requires few skills which he lacks. I honestly don’t think he could have done a better job for us if he had tried. I most enthusiastically recommend John Doe with no qualifications whatsoever. It will not take John long to get up to speed. No salary would be too much for him. You won’t find many people like John.14 One problem with strategic ambiguity, of course, is that it can easily be misunderstood. This problem can be especially acute in medical settings, when health care providers try to deliver bad news to patients in a way that softens its impact. For example: 205 [A surgeon] took one look at a patient’s badly infected foot and recognized that it would have to be amputated. “I don’t think we’re going to be able to deal with this with local treatments,” he told the patient. When the surgeon left the examining room, the woman turned to the doctor and asked: “Does that mean I’m going to have to go to Los Angeles for treatment?”15 Even when misunderstandings are not a problem, strategic ambiguity works only when both sender and receiver are willing to tolerate a deliberate lack of clarity. Without that understanding, the result can be confusion, and often feelings of being betrayed or manipulated. Inflammatory Language Language has the power to stir intense emotions. It can motivate, inspire, and amuse audiences. Unfortunately, it can also generate equally intense negative feelings: antagonism, defensiveness, and prejudice. You can prevent these negative outcomes by following two guidelines. Avoid Biased Language Emotional problems arise when speakers intentionally or unintentionally use biased language—terms that seem to be objective but actually conceal an emotional bias. Consider, for example, the range of words you could use to refer to a 25-year-old man who disagrees with your proposal: man, fellow, guy, young man, or dude. Each of these terms paints a different picture in the listener’s mind; none of them is neutral. When faced with biased language, it is wise to recognize that the speaker is editorializing. Tactfully restate the term in language that does not contain an evaluation, paraphrase it with neutral language, or use terms that quantify the meaning. Speaker’s Biased Language Listener’s Restatement It’s a gamble. So you don’t think the idea is a reasonable risk. Is that it? (paraphrase) 206 He’s long-winded. Bill has been talking for a half-hour. (quantify) She’s so wishy-washy. You think Susan isn’t willing to make a decision? (rephrase in nonbiased language) 88 Self-Assessment Recognizing Your Biases Researchers coined the phrase “unconscious bias” to describe implicit bias that we are unaware of and that happens outside of our control. This bias has a considerable impact in the workplace, especially as it pertains to diversity. In one research study, science faculty from research- intensive universities were asked to rate the application materials submitted by two candidates—one male and one female—with the same qualifications for a laboratory manager position. Both male and female participants rated the male applicant as significantly more competent than the female applicant and were willing to offer more career mentoring and a higher starting salary to the male applicant. Although this example pertains to biological sex, unconscious bias can occur based on age, disability, nationality, religion, skin tone, sexuality, gender, and weight, among other factors. The repercussions of unconscious bias are receiving quite a lot of attention in today’s business environment. The Office of Diversity and Outreach at the University of California–San Francisco has started a campaign to address unconscious bias. Similarly, Google’s roughly 60,000 employees around the world have been asked to complete 60- to 90-minute training sessions on unconscious bias. One of the most popular tools available to assess unconscious bias is the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Scientists developed the IAT to detect biases by measuring their impact on behavior. The test takes the form of a simple sorting task, in which individuals are asked to sort images and words that appear on a computer screen into one of two 207 categories. The idea is that when two concepts (fat, thin; good, bad) are highly correlated, people are able to pair those concepts more quickly than those that are not associated. To assess your unconscious biases, visit the following site: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/selectatest.html. Sources: Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. “Science Faculty’s Subtle Gender Biases Favor Male Students,” PNAS, 109 (41), 2012, 16474–16479; UCSF Office of Diversity and Outreach, “Unconscious Bias,” 2016. Retrieved from https://diversity.ucsf.edu/resources/unconscious-bias; re:Work (2016). Unbiasing. Retrieved from https://rework.withgoogle.com/subjects/unbiasing/; Project Implicit (2011). Retrieved from https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/iatdetails.html Beware of Trigger Words Some terms have such strong emotional associations they act almost like a trigger, setting off an intense emotional reaction in certain listeners. These trigger words can refer to specific people (your boss, the president), groups or categories of individuals (union stewards, the Human Resources department, customers with complaints), issues (affirmative action, flexible scheduling), or other topics (imports, downsizing). What is the best way to deal with trigger words? The first thing to realize is that, like everyone else, you almost certainly have your own trigger words. Therefore, you ought to begin by recognizing them, so when one comes up you will at least be aware of your sensitivity and avoid overreacting. If, for example, your parents are farmers and you are sensitive about people speaking condescendingly about farmers, you might catch yourself before you overreact when a coworker refers to someone on Casual Friday as “dressed like a farmer.” It could be an innocent or uninformed remark. Sometimes, however, you will discover too late that a term that seems innocuous to you is a trigger word for others. After the other person vents his or her strong feelings, you can acknowledge the misunderstanding, apologize, choose a more agreeable term, and proceed with the discussion. 89 208 CAREER tip Strategic Swearing Swearing serves a variety of communication functions.16 It is a way to express emotions and to let others know how strongly you feel. It can be a compliment (“That was #$&@ing terrific!”) or the worst of insults. Swearing can build solidarity and be a term of endearment, but it can offend and alienate, too. Swearing on the job can have dire consequences. Such behavior has been identified as the leading cause of employee terminations.17 Moreover, some types of language can lead to complaints of sexual harassment, even when it is not directed at a particular employee.18 Communication researchers have investigated the effects of swearing in work settings.19 Not surprisingly, they have found that the more formal the situation, the more negative the appraisal of swearing. The chosen swear word also makes a difference. “F-bombs” are judged to be more inappropriate than other, less-volatile terms. Perhaps most important, when listeners are caught by surprise by a speaker’s swearing, they are likely to deem the person incompetent. Despite these findings, Stanford University professor Robert Sutton notes that choosing not to swear can sometimes violate the norms of some organizations.20 In addition, he maintains that swearing on rare occasions can be effective for its shock value. (The fact that Sutton authored a book called The No Asshole Rule suggests that he practices what he preaches.) But even Sutton adds a cautionary note about swearing on the job: “If you are not sure, don’t do it.” This advice is especially important for workers who are new to the organization or whose position is not secure. The rules of communication competence always apply: Analyze and adapt to your audience; pay attention to both verbal and nonverbal feedback; and when in doubt, err on the side of restraint. 209 Language and Identity Management The way you speak can shape how others perceive you. Several speech habits can help you create a professional image. Choose the Optimal Degree of Powerful Language Some types of language make speakers sound less powerful, whereas other types create an air of power and confidence. Powerful language consists of clear language without unnecessary add-ons that make speakers sound as if they are doubting themselves or are not confident in their own ideas. Notice the difference between the less powerful and more powerful speech examples in the following table. Less Powerful Speech More Powerful Speech Tag questions “This report is good, isn’t it?” “This report is good.” Hesitations “I, uh, think we should, um, use the newer format.” “I think we should use the newer format.” Qualifiers “I don’t know if you’ll like this idea, but we could hire an outside consultant.” “We could hire an outside consultant.” Intensifiers “That was such a good job!” “That was a good job!”

Questions “Do you think we should shorten the report?”

“We should shorten the report.” 90 210 Speakers who use more powerful speech are rated as more competent, dynamic, and attractive than speakers who sound powerless.21 One study revealed that even a single powerless speech mannerism can make a person appear less authoritative.22 Thus, when your goal is to create an impression of power and conviction, it is best to use more powerful speech. Conversely, sometimes powerful individuals might intentionally use less powerful language to avoid throwing their weight around. In some situations, less powerful forms of speech can even enhance a speaker’s effectiveness.23 For example, a boss might say to her assistant, “Would you mind making copies of these files before you go home?” Both the boss and the assistant know this is an order and not a request, but the questioning form is more considerate and leaves the assistant feeling better about the boss.24 The importance of achieving both task and relational goals helps explain why a mixture of powerful and polite speech is usually most effective.25 Use Positive Language One strategic way to enhance a professional identity is to use positive language. Imagine your boss comes to you at 4:45 pm and asks you to do a job as soon as possible. You could say, “I can’t get to that tonight. It’ll have to wait until tomorrow.” Alternatively, you could reply, “I’ll get to that first thing in the morning.” It is easy to imagine which response would be viewed more favorably. Unintentionally negative language habits can subtly damage a positive image. Negativity is often a reflex in simple exchanges: “How are you?” “Not bad.” “Can you handle this?” “No problem.” “Thanks.” “No big deal.” Instead of using negative language, it is better to give quick, positive responses: “I’m fine.” “Yes, I can.” “You’re welcome.” Limit Disfluencies Disfluencies are utterances that add no meaning to a statement. Interjections such as “um,” “you know,” and “like” can make a smart idea sound less persuasive. When she was running for the U.S. Senate in 2008–2009, candidate Caroline Kennedy’s disfluency habit may have helped sabotage her credibility. One critic reported counting more than 200 “you know’s” in a single interview.26 Another filler word often viewed negatively, especially by older generations, is “like.” In fact, 211 personal branding strategist Sylwia Dziedzic names “like” as one of the top filler words that can get in your way of getting hired.27 No one expects colloquial speech to be flawless. In fact, perfect utterances would sound artificial and strange. Even so, practice can help keep the number of disfluences under control. Feminine and Masculine Language Use As described in an earlier chapter, culture affects communication. Some social scientists have suggested that conversation between men and women is a kind of cross-cultural communication in which members of each sex are not speaking different dialects but rather “genderlects.”28 They have argued that these different approaches affect the way men and women interact in ways that are powerful but usually go unnoticed. As you read about differences in male and female speech, understand that the descriptions do not characterize all men and women. The relationship between gender and language is like the one between gender and height: Men are generally taller than women, but some women are taller than some men. In fact, the difference between the tallest man and the shortest man (or the tallest woman and the shortest woman) is greater than the difference between the average man and the average woman. For this reason, the words “masculine” and “feminine” are actually better adjectives to describe language differences because they refer to traits characteristically linked to each gender 91 and not to biological sex. Remember also that gender is not the only factor that influences conversational style. Cultural, geographical, and occupational influences play roles as well. Finally, understand that the differences outlined in this section reflect past communication patterns. As the roles of men and women in society evolve, speech styles may change in tandem. Feminine Language Use From childhood, females learn to use speech for what some researchers refer to as rapport talk—that is, talk used to create connections, establish goodwill, show support, and build community. For many women, an important part of building rapport is 212 using language as an expressive tool: to articulate emotions (“I’m worried about finishing those reports today”; “I’m glad everybody had a chance to speak”) and clarify relationships (“We don’t seem to be working well together”). Characteristically feminine speech often goes beyond just expressing emotions, by becoming supportive. Women are most likely to listen and respond to spoken and unspoken conversational clues about the other person’s feelings. A characteristically feminine reply to a description of difficulties at work is “I know what that’s like. Last year I had so much trouble with a client on the Bustos case …” This response lets the speaker know that she is not alone, that she is understood. Another characteristic of feminine conversational style is its tentative nature. This nature is reflected in questioning forms (“Could we go now?” “Would you type that for me?”), hedges and disclaimers (“I’m not sure about these figures …”; “This might not be a good time to bring this up, but …”), and tag questions (“The report is due today, isn’t it?”). While these forms exhibit the less powerful characteristics described earlier in this chapter on p. 90, linguist Deborah Tannen describes them more as a bid for solidarity than as a sign of weakness: Many women are frequently told, “Don’t apologize” or “You’re always apologizing.” The reason “apologizing” is seen as something they should stop doing is that it seems synonymous with putting oneself down. But for many women, and a fair number of men, saying “I’m sorry” isn’t literally an apology; it is a ritual way of restoring balance to a conversation. “I’m sorry,” spoken in this spirit, if it has any literal meaning at all, does not mean “I apologize,” which would be tantamount to accepting blame, but rather “I’m sorry that happened.”29 Speech forms such as apologizing, especially when used by women, can create the impression of less authority, status, certainty, accuracy, or credibility. Nevertheless, tentative speech does not have to be regarded as weak:30 Another interpretation is that it builds rapport by avoiding dogmatism and supporting equality. 213 Conversational initiation and maintenance are also characteristic of feminine speech. Women have long been taught to ask questions to get a conversation going, to find out what others are interested in, and to show interest in a conversational partner. As a consequence, many women ask questions to start and maintain conversations: “Did you hear about … ?” “Are you going to … ?” “Did you know that … ?” In addition, women use “listening noises” (“uh, huh,” “yeah,” “mmhmm”) to show interest. If women do interrupt, that action is often intended to support or affirm the speaker, not to challenge or threaten. Masculine Language Use Whereas women use talk to build rapport, men are more comfortable with what linguists have labeled report talk— speech that focuses less on feelings and relationships and more on information, facts, knowledge, and competence. Men are more inclined to use language to claim attention, assert a position, establish status, and show independence. Research shows men need to be just as sensitive as women, but they may use that awareness differently. In one study, male managers who 92 were more accurate at emotion perception received higher satisfaction ratings if they used the information to be more persuasive. By contrast, more emotionally perceptive female managers received higher satisfaction ratings when they demonstrated more supportiveness.31 Characteristically masculine speech uses language instrumentally (as opposed to expressively) to get things done—that is, to report information, solve visible problems, achieve, accomplish, attain, execute, and perform. The results are often tangible and the reward is visible: “Fax these reports to accounting”; “I’ll make reservations at Sara’s”; “Finish that proposal by Monday.” In addition, men often use language to define status. When dealing with personal problems, a characteristically masculine approach is to offer advice that will lead to a solution. Empathizing to show sympathy and establish solidarity just does not seem helpful or appropriate to many men. 214 Characteristically masculine speech is more assertive, certain, direct, and authoritative. Men often use statements of fact rather than opinion: “That deduction belongs on Schedule C” rather than “I think that’s a Schedule C deduction.” Declarative sentences and dropped pitch at the end of a sentence create a sense of sureness and authority. Men are more likely to speak directly, giving clear and unambiguous commands or directions rather than couching requests in the form of questions. Men’s speech style typically includes several characteristics of conversational dominance or control—namely, verbosity, topic control, and interruptions. Most research supports the contention that in public conversations between men and women, men talk at greater length.32 Often in response to questions from women, men decide which topic of conversation to pursue and talk longer than the women in the same conversation. Research on interruptions is mixed regarding who interrupts more, but it appears that the purpose of men’s interruptions is often to gain control of the conversational topic or the conversation itself. Table 4-2 summarizes research findings on characteristics of feminine and masculine speech styles. Table 4-2 Characteristics of Feminine and Masculine Speech Styles Characteristically Feminine Speech Characteristically Masculine Speech Builds rapport Is expressive Offers support Sounds tentative Initiates and maintains conversation Reports facts Is instrumental Offers advice Sounds certain Controls conversation Meeting Gender-Related Language Challenges Problems can arise when stereotypically masculine and feminine language styles clash on the job—often without anyone knowing exactly why. For instance, a woman who says, “I’m having difficulty with the Garcia account,” may want to hear her concerns acknowledged and know that others have 215 experienced similar problems. Her goal may be to gain support, establish connection, or seek rapport, or perhaps she may just want to talk about the situation. A man, conditioned to use speech to solve problems, might respond with advice: “Here’s one way you could handle it …” If the woman wanted support 93 and connection, being given advice might produce an effect just the opposite of the rapport she was looking for: The woman might feel her male colleague was trying to “one-up” her, coming across as a superior. From his frame of reference, the man was being helpful: He offered useful information at the request of someone in need. Another gender-related problem can arise when a man pays attention to the content of a message while a woman focuses on the relational dimension of the words. If a male supervisor says, “I can’t do anything about your hours; the boss says they’re set and can’t be changed,” a woman may hear a relational message of “I don’t care” or “I don’t want to be bothered.” The man, used to dealing with communication at the task level, is not being unsympathetic; he is just responding to a request. Both masculine and feminine language styles work well—as long as listeners use the same rules. Frustration can arise when people expect others to use the same style as they do.33 The following suggestions can help communicators understand and adapt to one another’s differing uses of language: Be aware of different styles. Once you are aware that men and women have been taught to use language differently, there is less likelihood of being dismayed at a style that does not match yours. The cultural analogy is apt here: If you were traveling in another country, you would not be offended by the inhabitants’ customs, even if they were different from yours. In the same way, accepting gender differences can lead to smoother relationships—even if members of the other sex behave differently from you. Switch styles when appropriate. Being bilingual is an obvious advantage in a multicultural world. In the same way, using a communication style that differs from your usual style can be useful. If you routinely focus on the content of others’ remarks, consider paying 216 more attention to the unstated relational messages behind their words. If you generally focus on the unexpressed-feelings part of a message, consider being more task oriented. If your first instinct is to be supportive, consider the value of offering advice; and if advice is your reflexive way of responding, think about whether offering support and understanding might sometimes be more helpful. Combine styles. Effective communication may not be an either–or matter of choosing one style. In many situations, you may get the best results by combining typically masculine and feminine approaches. Research confirms what common sense suggests: A “mixed-gender strategy” that balances the traditionally masculine, task-oriented approach with the characteristically feminine, relationship-oriented approach is rated most highly by both male and female respondents.34 Choosing the right approach for the other communicator and the situation can create satisfaction far greater than that achieved with an approach that relies on a single stereotypical style.

• Nonverbal Communication Words are not the only way we communicate. You can appreciate this fact by imagining the following scenarios:

Your boss has told the staff she welcomes any suggestions about how to improve the organization. You take her at her word and schedule an appointment to discuss some ideas you have had. As you begin to outline your proposed changes, she focuses her gaze directly on you, folds her arms across her chest, clenches her jaw muscles, and begins to frown. At the end of your remarks, she rises abruptly from her chair, says, “Thank you for your ideas” in a monotone voice, and gives you a curt handshake. 94 Despite the expense, you have decided to have a highly regarded certified public accountant (CPA) handle your tax matters. While waiting for the accountant to appear, you scan the impressive display 217 of diplomas from prestigious universities and professional associations on the walls of the CPA’s office. The accountant enters, and as the conversation proceeds, he yawns repeatedly. Most people would find these situations odd and disturbing. This reaction would have nothing to do with the verbal behavior of the people involved. In each case, nonverbal behavior sends messages above and beyond the words being spoken: The boss does not really seem to want to hear your suggestions, and you wonder whether the accountant is capable or caring with regard to your taxes. ©Michael Goldman/Photodisc/Getty Images RF In the following pages, we examine the role of nonverbal communication in the working world. For our purposes, nonverbal communication involves messages expressed without words. Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication resembles verbal communication in some ways —but it is also quite different from verbal communication in other regards. Nonverbal Behavior Always Has Communicative Value You may not always intend to send nonverbal messages, but everything about your appearance, your every movement, your facial expressions, and the nuances of your voice have the potential to convey meaning.35 You can demonstrate this fact by imagining your boss has “called you on the carpet,” claiming you have not been working hard enough. How could you 218 not send a nonverbal message? Nodding gravely would be a response; so would blushing, either avoiding or making direct eye contact, or shaking your head affirmatively or negatively. While you can shut off your linguistic channels of communication by refusing to speak or write, it is impossible to avoid behaving nonverbally. One writer learned this fact from movie producer Sam Goldwyn while presenting his proposal for a new film. “Mr. Goldwyn,” the writer implored, “I’m telling you a sensational story. I’m only asking for your opinion, and you fall asleep.” Goldwyn’s reply: “Isn’t sleeping an opinion?” Nonverbal communication operates even in mediated communication. Some nonverbal elements are obvious: The use of emoticons, an abundance of exclamation points, and the impression of shouting when a message is typed in ALL CAPITAL LETTERS are clear examples. But even not responding to an e-mail, instant message (IM), or text message can suggest a put-down.36 Nonverbal Communication Is Powerful Despite folk sayings like “you can’t judge a book from its cover,” we form impressions of others mostly from nonverbal observations about physical appearance and behavior. Once we form these impressions, they influence our subsequent impressions and judgments. Canadian communication consultant Lee McCoy gives an example: If I meet Susan and initially perceive her to be professional, attractive, and intelligent, I’m also likely to begin to attribute other positive characteristics to her. I 95 might see her as organized, successful, and warm. This is not to suggest that I’ll ignore negative characteristics, but it will take me longer to become aware of something negative if my initial perceptions of her are very positive. If, on the other hand, Susan presents herself to me as sloppily dressed, with bitten fingernails and a lack of eye contact, I may begin to attribute equally negative characteristics to her—insecurity, lack of knowledge, coldness.37 219 Even after first impressions have been made, the impact of nonverbal behavior is powerful. In fact, when nonverbal behavior seems to contradict a verbal message, the spoken words carry less weight than the nonverbal cues.38 Nonverbal Behavior Is Ambiguous While nonverbal communication can create powerful impressions, the messages it conveys are ambiguous.39 Does a customer’s yawn signal boredom or fatigue? Are your coworkers laughing with or at you? Does your boss’s frown reflect disapproval or preoccupation? Most nonverbal behaviors have a multitude of possible meanings, and it is a serious mistake to assume you can correctly determine which is true in any given case. Nonverbal Communication Primarily Expresses Attitudes While it is relatively easy to infer general interest, liking, disagreement, amusement, and so on from another person’s actions, messages about ideas or concepts do not lend themselves to nonverbal channels. How, for instance, would you express the following messages nonverbally? Current sales are running 16 percent above last year’s sales. Management decided to cancel the sales meeting after all. Let’s meet at 2:00 pm to plan the agenda for tomorrow’s meeting. Obviously, such thoughts are best expressed in speech and writing. Nevertheless, nonverbal behavior can imply how the speaker feels about these statements: whether the speaker is pleased sales are up or worried they are not as high as expected, whether the staff is relieved or frustrated about the cancelled meeting, and so on. Nonverbal Communication Affects Career Success Not surprisingly, the ability to manage your nonverbal behavior plays a strong role in communicative success. For example, salespeople who are better at reading potential clients’ nonverbal cues make more sales and earn higher incomes than their less astute colleagues.40 Likewise, successful entrepreneurs owe a great deal of their success to their well-honed social skills, including the ability to manage their own nonverbal behavior and 220 read that of others.41 Similarly, managers who are good at reading and responding to nonverbal cues receive higher performance ratings from both their bosses and their subordinates.42 Much Nonverbal Behavior Is Culture Bound Certain types of nonverbal behavior seem to be universal. For example, members of most literate cultures strongly agree about which facial expressions represent happiness, fear, surprise, sadness, anger, and disgust or contempt.43 In contrast, many nonverbal expressions do vary from culture to culture. In this age of international communication in business, it is especially important to understand cultural differences in the meanings assigned to nonverbal behaviors. Consider the different rules about how much distance is appropriate between speakers. One study revealed that the “proper” space between two speakers varies considerably from one culture to another: To a Japanese person, a comfortable space is 40 inches; for a U.S. resident, 35 inches; and to a Venezuelan, 32 inches.44 It is easy to see how these differences could lead to challenges for a 96 U.S. native doing business overseas. Types of Nonverbal Communication We have already mentioned several types of nonverbal messages. We now discuss each in more detail. Voice Your own experience shows the voice communicates in ways that have nothing to do with the words a speaker utters. You may recall, for instance, overhearing two people arguing in an adjoining room or apartment; even though you could not make out their words, their emotions and the fact they were arguing were apparent from the sounds of their voices. Similarly, you have probably overheard people talking in a language you did not understand, yet the speakers’ feelings—excitement, delight, exhaustion, boredom, grief—were conveyed by their voices. The term paralanguage describes a wide range of vocal characteristics, each of which helps express an attitude: pitch (high–low), resonance (resonant–thin), range (spread–narrow), tempo (rapid–slow), 221 articulation (precise–imprecise), disfluencies (e.g., um, er), rhythm (smooth–jerky), pauses (frequency and duration), and volume (loud–soft). Not surprisingly, voice contributes dramatically to business and professional communicators’ success or failure. For example, surgeons with harsh, impatient voices are more likely to be sued by patients for malpractice compared to those with more friendly speech mannerisms.45 One distinctive vocal trait is “uptalk”—the tendency to end sentences on a rising pitch. This vocal pattern makes assertions sound like questions: “Mr. Chen? It’s Eliza Palmer? From Accounts Receivable?” In a July 2015 episode of National Public Radio’s Fresh Air, journalist Jessica Grose discussed her experience being criticized for uptalk. She recalled an older man whom she was interviewing for an article in Businessweek telling her that she sounded like his granddaughter. Grose said, “That was the first moment I felt [my voice] was hurting my career beyond just irritating a couple of listeners.”46 Vocal fry—or a set of low, creaky vibrations—is another type of vocal trait that is often perceived negatively in the workplace. This particular vocal style has been popularized by musical artists like Britney Spears and Katy Perry, who use it to add style and variation to their singing. Some researchers note that vocal fry has become a common vocal trait in U.S. women, being used by as many as two-thirds of surveyed female college students aged 18–25 years.47 Despite not equating vocal fry with confidence, college students tend to have a favorable impression of this trait and associate it with education/knowledge, intimacy, genuineness, and nonaggression.48 When it comes to hiring decisions, however, research suggests employers have a more harmful perception of vocal fry. Specifically, females who use vocal fry are deemed less trustworthy, competent, and educated. As a result, listeners may be less willing to hire them than candidates who do not use vocal fry.49 While uptalk and vocal fry are used by both sexes, these traits appear to be more common among women. It is easy to imagine how these traits can contribute to perceptions of female unassertiveness. “If women always sound like they’re asking for approval or agreement, they seem less sure of themselves,” says communication consultant Mary-Ellen Drummond.50 222 Appearance Appearance plays a tremendous role in determining how a communicator’s messages will be received in business and elsewhere.51 As a rule, people who 97 look attractive are considered to be likable and persuasive, and they generally have more successful careers.52 For example, research suggests that beginning salaries increase approximately $2,000 for every 1-point increase on a 5-point attractiveness scale and that more attractive men (but not more attractive women) are given higher starting salaries than their less handsome counterparts. ©Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Getty Images RF A number of factors contribute to how attractive a person seems. For instance, potential employers, customers, and coworkers are usually impressed by people who are trim, muscular, and in good shape. One study, in fact, shows that people who are overweight have more trouble getting job offers.53 Some aspects of physical appearance cannot be changed easily. However, one significant factor in appearance—clothing —is one over which you may have the most control. The kind of clothing one wears can influence how people react. Boeing Aircraft CEO Philip Condit is keenly aware of this fact. Having discovered that discussions were hard to get going when he appeared in a business suit and tie, Condit routinely dresses down when making trips to the shop floor to talk with the men and women who build Boeing aircraft.54 223 Attitudes about which clothing is acceptable keep changing. By the mid-1990s, even conservative IBM abandoned its decades-long policy of requiring employees to wear a dark business suit, allowing male workers in some jobs to show up for work without a suit and tie. A spokesperson for IBM explained, “You try to dress like your customers do.”55 In contrast, the casual dress trends associated with the 1990 dot-coms seem to be in decline.56 Whether to dress up or dress down depends on several factors, including the industry or field of work. California’s outdoor gear and clothing manufacturer Patagonia may have one of the most liberal dress codes: Even shoes are not required.57 By comparison, financial services and public administration businesses have some of the most conservative dress standards, while high-tech, utilities, and natural resources firms tend to allow the most informal attire.58 Geography also makes a difference in determining an appropriate working wardrobe. In one survey, Washington, DC, proved to have the most conservative attire, with New York and Philadelphia close behind. California and New England—the homes of many high-tech companies— had more liberal standards.59 Knowing that an office has a “business casual” dress code is not enough to determine what is appropriate, however, as “casual” is itself an ambiguous term. As business etiquette expert Dana Casperson notes, business casual “means one thing on the West Coast, another thing on the East Coast, and no one knows in the middle.”60 An individual organization’s culture also makes a difference in determining which attire is considered appropriate. Thus, two companies in the same field might have quite different appearance codes. When choosing your wardro

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