Week 2 6630 responses | Nursing homework help

WEEK 2 6630 RESPONSES

Ifeoma12 Julian Fils Julian Fils: (Week Two)Neurotransmitters and Receptor TheoryCOLLAPSE Discussion: Neurotransmitters and Receptor Theory Explain the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents, including how partial and inverse agonist functionality may impact psychopharmacologic treatments' efficacy. In simple terms, an agonist creates a specific action, and the antagonist opposes a particular activity. Neurotransmitters that occur naturally stimulate receptors and are thus agonists. Some medications also stimulate receptors and are therefore agonists as well. The mechanism of partial agonists or stabilizers the drugs stimulate the receptors lesser than natural neurotransmitter. It is a common misconception that antagonists are the opposite of agonists because they block agonists' actions. However, although antagonists prevent agonists' efforts, they have no activity of their own in the agonist's absence (Stern et al., 2016). For this reason, antagonists are sometimes called "silent." Inverse agonists, on the other hand, do have opposite actions compared to agonists. That is, they not only block agonists but can also reduce activity below the baseline level when no agonist is present. Thus, the agonist spectrum reaches from full agonists to partial agonists through "silent" antagonists and finally inverse agonists (Stahl, 2013). Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels Neurotransmitters trigger G-protein-linked and ion-channel-linked cascades. There are four elements linked to the G-protein-linked system. The first element is the neurotransmitter, also referred to as the first messenger. The second is the G-protein coupled receptors which have seven transmembrane regions. The third element a G protein, which is a connecting protein. The fourth element is an enzyme that can synthesize a second messenger when activated (Stahl, 2013). The first steps involve the neurotransmitter binding to the receptor. It also changes the form of the receptor, which allows it to fit with the G protein. Then, the G protein binding is conformed to the receptor of the neurotransmitter. The two receptors (neurotransmitter and the G protein) work with each other, which then bind to enzyme E and synthesizes the second messenger (Stahl, 2013). Ion channel receptors are a vital component of nervous system signaling, allowing rapid and direct conversion of a chemical neurotransmitter message to an electrical current. Efficient neurotransmission requires the precise interplay of various neurotransmitter receptors at pre-and post-synaptic compartments. Ligand-gated ion channels play a central role in intercellular communication in the nervous system. Ion channels are the cellular machinery for ion flux across the membrane and, therefore, the basis of the electrical excitation of neurons. Ligand-gated ion channels are oligomeric protein assemblies that convert a chemical signal into an ion flux through the post-synaptic membrane and are involved in essential brain functions such as attention, learning, and memory (Li et al., 2015). Explain how the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action Epigenetics describes genetic information that is 'beyond' or 'above' that information coded solely by our genetic code (Stefanska & MacEwan, 2015). Prior research has shown that the initial epigenetic pattern was set during life and gave each neuron its life-long personality. However, recent studies have shown that these neurons are changing. Depending on what happened to them, such as stress, child abuse, dietary deficiencies, psychotherapy, drug abuse, or psychotherapeutic medications, the previously silent genes are now activated once active genes can become silenced. Thus, causing favorable and unfavorable developments. Favorable epigenetics may trigger learning or experience therapeutic effects on medications, and inimical epigenetic mechanisms may trigger drug abuse, addiction, anxiety disorder, or chronic pain (Stahl, 2013). Explain how this information may impact the way you prescribe medications to patients. Include a specific example of a situation or case with a patient in which the psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner must be aware of the medication's action. As prescribers, psychiatric nurse practitioners must understand the biological and physical aspects of prescribing medication to the mental health population. These medications directly affect the receptors and neurons; therefore, it is imperative to understand the mechanism of action. Recently at work, a geriatric psychiatric patient with a urinary tract infection was having difficulty sleeping. The nurse asked about trazodone as a PRN for sleep. The Psychiatrist explained that trazodone inhibition of the reuptake of serotonin makes it an antidepressant. It is essential to know it also blocks alpha- receptors that can give the side effect of orthostatic hypotension, especially in older patients. What is also crucial is to note that the anticholinergic effects of trazodone cause delirium and confusion. In this example, a study was conducted by Lockwood & Youssef (2017), where the study of epigenetic effects on the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in patients with bipolar disorder types I and II and major depressive disorder. In this study, methylation was investigated when patients were in various mood states, including manic, hypomanic, mixed, euthymic, and depressed. The effects of valproic acid and lithium and the impact on BDNF were studied. The results have shown that in a mixed or manic state, BDNF methylation levels approximated that of the control subjects. In addition to that, the patients that were in euthymic or depressed states had significantly higher BDNF methylation levels (Lockwood & Youssef, 2017).

References

Li, S., Wong, A. H. C., & Liu, F. (2015). Ligand-gated ion channel interacting proteins and their role in neuroprotection. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2014.00125 Lockwood, L., & Youssef, N. (2017). Systematic review of epigenetic effects of pharmacological agents for bipolar disorders. Brain Sciences, 7(12), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7110154 Stahl, S. (2013). Stahl's essential psychopharmacology print and online bundle: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications. Cambridge University Press. Stefanska, B., & MacEwan, D. J. (2015). Epigenetics and pharmacology. British Journal of Pharmacology, 172(11), 2701–2704. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13136 Stern, T. A., M Fava, Wilens, T. E., & Rosenbaum, J. F. (2016). Massachusetts general hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics. Elsevier. Deepinder Bhandohal Week 2 DiscussionCOLLAPSE Foundational Neuroscience