Discussion board | Applied Sciences homework help

1. Describe the cultural challenges in a specific organization or career and identify specific approaches to communicate effectively within this culture.

orkplace diversity refers to the variety of differences that constitute the identities of people in an organization. As you will learn in this chapter, diversity encompasses many characteristics—race, ethnic affiliation, social 101 W class, generation, nationality, physical ability, gender, military experience, sexual orientation, and more. Technological innovations, such as computer software and mobile apps, coupled with an increase in international trade and immigration, mean that the likelihood of working with people from different parts of the world is greater today than in any other time in history. According to the Office of the Governor of Texas, more than 1,145 foreign companies and their subsidiaries operate in Houston alone.1 In 2016, more than 26 million U.S. workers—16.7 percent of the country’s total labor force—were born outside the United States.2 Workplace diversity concerns, however, are not limited to persons working in international business. Even the owners of a mom-and-pop pharmacy or local boutique in Kearney, Nebraska, will find themselves communicating with individuals from a variety of backgrounds on a regular basis. As Figure 2.1 shows, in 2015, Millennials surpassed Generation Xers as the largest generational component of the U.S. labor force.3 FIGURE 2.1 U.S. Labor Force Participation by Generation Note: Annual averages plotted 1995–2014. For 2015 the first quarter average of 2015 is shown. Due to data limitations, Silent generation is overestimated from 2008–2015. Source: “Pew Research Center Tabulations of Monthly 1995–2015 Current Population Surveys,” Integrated Public Use Microdata series (IPUMS). Given these statistics, it is no surprise that intercultural competence has been identified as one of the top skills for the workforce in 2020,4 and that more than 80 percent of human resources executives surveyed say that 102 global talent is a priority.5 For companies and 31 individuals who can take advantage of the trend toward increasing cultural diversity, the opportunities are great. The chemical company DuPont, for example, has a policy of hiring men and women of a variety of ages and cultures because “diversity of experience and perspective gives DuPont a competitive edge.”6 Stona Fitch, vice president of manufacturing for Procter & Gamble, says, “Diversity provides a much richer environment, a variety of viewpoints, greater productivity. And, not unimportantly, it makes work more fun and interesting.”7 According to a spokesperson for the American Society of Civil Engineers, “Without embracing diversity, the engineering profession will be unable to compete effectively in the global marketplace.”8 Whether you are working abroad, for or with foreign nationals at home, or with native-born people from different backgrounds, understanding cultural differences is an essential part of being an effective communicator.

• The Nature of Culture When most people use the word culture, they think of people from different national backgrounds. National cultures certainly do exist, and they play an important role in shaping the way people communicate. In addition, differences related to factors such as race/ethnicity, socioeconomic class, gender, and age play a role in communication. Taking all these factors into account, we can define culture as a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms that affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people.9

It is important to realize that culture is learned, not innate. A Korean- born infant adopted soon after birth by non-Korean parents and raised in the United States will think and act differently from his or her cousins who grew up in Seoul. An African American may view the world differently depending on the region in which she was raised—or, more dramatically, if she finds herself working abroad in a country such as France or Zaire, where African heritage has a different significance from that in the United 103 States. The overwhelming influence of culture on communication led famous anthropologist Edward Hall to assert that “culture is communication and communication is culture.”10 Cultures are invisible to the people used to inhabiting them. In contrast, to people from different backgrounds, the power of dominant norms is obvious. One account of a corporate training session illustrates this point: [The trainer] would run a little experiment when she was talking to corporate audiences that were mixed—including white men, women, and minorities. She would ask the audience to do a simple task: “Please list,” she would request, “the rules needed to be successful in a white male society.” Immediately the women and the minorities would begin to write down all the things they had to do to “fit in.” Meanwhile, the white males in the audience just sat there, doing nothing, looking around at the women 32 and the minorities writing for all they were worth.15 The author describing this experiment explains the important truth it reveals: [Cultural] paradigms are like water to fish. They are invisible in many situations because it is “just the way we do things.” Often they operate at an unconscious level. Yet they determine, to a large extent, our behavior. As a white male, I cannot write down all those rules. My wife can. My minority friends can.16 CULTURE at work Organizations Are Cultures, Too Every organization has its own way of doing business. Anyone who has worked for more than one restaurant or retail store, attended more than one college or university, belonged to more than one team, or volunteered 104 for more than one worthy cause knows that even when the same job is being performed, the way it is done can be radically different. Theorists use the term organizational culture to describe these unique traits. An organization’s culture is a relatively stable, shared set of rules that describe how to behave and set of values that indicate what is important. In everyday language, culture is the insiders’ view of “the way things are around here.” Organizational culture can affect you in many ways, large and small. Among other things, your organization’s culture can determine where and how long you will work. It can shape the emotional environment, including the degree of cooperation or competition, and notions of how much and which kinds of fun are appropriate. Culture will surely influence the way you and others dress and the physical environment in which you will spend your time. Organizational culture will govern the amount and types of interactions you have (both on and off the job) with other employees, both coworkers and management.11 Your fit with an organization’s culture can make all the difference between a satisfying experience and a disappointing job. Research shows that employees are more satisfied and committed to their jobs when their values match those of their supervisors and the organization.12 They are also more successful. Harvard Business School professors John Kotter and James Heskett flatly state that people who conform to the norms of their organization’s culture will be rewarded, while those who do not will be penalized.13 You can get a sense of a company’s culture by talking with people who work there. Besides asking about culture in a formal job interview, off-the-record conversations with potential colleagues can provide valuable insights about the way the company operates. For example, ask how employees spend their time. A surprising amount of effort might go into activities only remotely related to getting the job done: dealing with paperwork, playing office politics, struggling with balky equipment, or attending one unproductive meeting after another. Even if you do not learn much about the organization as a whole, you will get a good picture of the kind of people with whom you will be working. 105 You can also get clues about an organization’s culture by observing how it operates. Communication practices are a good place to begin. How are you treated when you visit a company or deal with its employees? Do e-mails and other written correspondence suggest a welcoming culture?14 An organization’s physical presence also says something about its culture. Are workers’ areas personalized or standardized? Is the workplace clean or dirty? Does the organization seem prosperous, or is it operating on a shoestring? You are likely to spend more waking hours on the job than anywhere else. For this reason, thinking about the “personality” of an organization where you work can be just as important as the kind of person whom you desire as a life partner.

• Communication in a Diverse Society When you think about different cultures, you might visualize people living in faraway or exotic locations. In reality, you do not have to travel abroad to find cultural

33 differences: U.S. society comprises a cross-section of many different people and cultures. Society in general is made up of a variety of co- cultures—groups that have a clear identity within the majority culture. Race, ethnicity, social class, generation, regional affiliation, disability, gender, religion, and military experience are a few examples of co-cultural markers that can make a difference in how we view ourselves and our coworkers. Understanding how culture shapes communication can help you avoid mistaken conclusions about what a certain message means. It may also help you understand more about how you communicate. Race and Ethnicity It is an oversimplification to describe a single race- or ethnicity-based style of communication, just as it is dangerous to claim that all young people, all women, or all New Yorkers are alike. Each person’s communication style 106 is a combination of individual and cultural traits. Keeping in mind the risks of over-generalizing, researchers have found some patterns of communication that are common for many members of various races and ethnicities. The amount of talk and silence that is appropriate can differ from one co-culture to another.17 For example, most Native American and many Asian American cultures value silence more than mainstream U.S. culture does. By contrast, African American and Euro-American cultures place a high value on verbal skills, and their members tend to speak more. It is easy to imagine how the silence of, say, a Japanese American or Native American employee could be viewed by an African American or Euro- American colleague as a sign of dislike. Attitudes toward conflict also differ from one ethnic co-culture to another. Because Asian cultures place a high value on saving face, or preserving one’s credibility or reputation, some Asian Americans prefer to avoid clear expressions of disagreement. Native Americans may seek to deal with conflict through silence rather than direct confrontation. By contrast, many (though certainly not all) individuals with a Greek, Israeli, Italian, French, or South American background may prefer a direct, open conflict style.18 Even when communicators from different backgrounds speak roughly the same amount, the degree of personal information they reveal can differ dramatically. For example, Euro-Americans disclose more than African Americans or Puerto Ricans, who in turn reveal more than Mexican Americans.19 (Of course, varying social and cultural contexts may create different disclosure patterns.) Nonverbal standards also vary by co-culture. Most communicators unconsciously assume that their rules for behaviors, such as eye contact, are universal. Researchers, however, have found that eye behavior can vary significantly. One study revealed that widely opened eyes are often interpreted in mainstream U.S. culture as a sign of surprise or wonder and in Hispanic culture as a call for help, signifying, “I don’t understand.” To some African Americans, the same kind of gaze is often regarded as a measure of innocence.20 Cultural differences in nonverbal behavior are discussed in more depth in Chapter 4. 107 Because Euro-Americans often associate eye contact with honesty and respect, it is easy to misjudge the motives of others for whom steady eye contact would be a sign of disrespect. In all too many cases, attempts by Puerto Ricans and Native Americans to show respect to persons in authority by not looking at them have been interpreted as dishonesty or disrespect by those accustomed to greater eye contact. Traditionally, Hopi and Navajo people generally avoid steady eye contact, as it is considered offensive, disrespectful, and rude. Blacks tend to make more eye contact when speaking but will not direct such a steady gaze at the speaker when they are listening. Whites tend to make more continuous eye contact while listening to someone.21 34 CULTURE at work Race Discrimination More than 1,000 labels, known as ethnophaulisms, have been used by Americans to degrade ethnic or racial groups. Often described as ethnic slurs, these labels are used by speakers to express a derogatory attitude toward the targeted group(s).22 Although the use of ethnophaulisms violates federal antidiscrimination laws and has been shown to create a hostile work environment, the use of slurs and other forms of racial discrimination remains prevalent in organizations.23 A 2010 report by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission indicated that 25 percent of racial discrimination claims made from 2003 to 2009 involved ethnophaulisms.24 Research shows that members of socially dominant groups are often the perpetrators of this type of workplace discrimination. Specifically, socially dominant group members Are less likely to be targets of racial slurs than socially subordinate groups. Are more likely to use racial slurs than socially subordinate groups. 108 Are less likely to speak up against users of racial slurs than socially subordinate groups. Tend to use racial slurs around members of the same dominant social groups.25 Individuals who engage in this type of behavior in the workplace are likely to experience hefty financial and reputational repercussions when it is made public. For example, in 2013, celebrity chef Paula Deen was accused of several business indiscretions, including racial workplace discrimination. In her deposition, Deen admitted to using the “N-word.” Her admission had a notable impact on her professional life, with the media and public backlash resulting in an extensive loss of reputation and business deals.26 Social Class Even in egalitarian societies like those found in the United States and Canada, social class can have a major impact on how people communicate on the job. Research demonstrates that parents tend to raise their children with the social class values of their own workplaces.27 For example, children raised in working-class families typically learn to be obedient, follow rules, and defer to authority. By contrast, those raised in middle- and upper-class households are taught how to make convincing arguments, think critically, and solve problems creatively. These lessons can have consequences later in life. College professors often find that working-class and first-generation college students who are raised not to challenge authority can have a difficult time speaking up, thinking critically, and arguing persuasively.28 The effects of social class continue into business and professional life, where skills such are assertiveness and persuasiveness are career-enhancers. People who come from working-class families and attain middle- or upper-class careers face special challenges in this environment. New speech and language, clothing, and nonverbal patterns are often necessary to gain acceptance.29 Many of these individuals must also cope with emotional ambivalence related to their career success.30 109 Generational Differences More than just a function of getting older over time, the historical period in which people live can affect their values, expectations, and, as a result, their communication. Today’s workforce is largely composed of members of four generations: Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Millennials, and Generation Zers.31 35 Baby Boomers (born 1946–1964) are the generation that is currently undergoing the most flux in the workplace. While this generation typically has the most seniority in organizations, its members are beginning to retire at an increasing rate. Born following World War II, the members of this generation were raised to be independent and to believe they have the power to effect meaningful changes. They witnessed and participated in an era of social reform and upheaval that included the Civil Rights movement and the Vietnam War, leading many Boomers to question the claims of authority figures—an ironic position now that they have become the authorities. In the workplace, Baby Boomers receive gratification from winning and achieving. They appreciate challenges, and enjoy pressure to perform.32 Generation Xers (born 1965–1980) hold many of the management positions in today’s organizations. In the workplace, Gen Xers are adept with technology, skeptical, and independent, and they possess a strong desire for work–life balance. They also place a high priority on fun, informality, and creativity on the job. They respect performance over tenure and are loyal to people, not organizations. The Pew Research Center found that Gen Xers believe their technology use, work ethic, conservative/traditional values, intelligence, and respectfulness distinguish them from other generations.33 Millennials (born 1980–2000) have also been labeled Generation Y, Net Generation, and Digital Natives. As of 2015, Millennials had become the largest generation by number in the U.S. workforce.34 Older Millennials fill many of the mid-career positions in today’s organizations and are beginning to shift into management roles, while the youngest Millennials compose much of the current college student population. As a group, Millennials are technologically adept, ambitious, confident, 110 hopeful, determined, and entrepreneurial. In the United States, Millennials are the most ethnically diverse generation in history. They have an international worldview; more than half have passports and one-fourth expect to work outside the United States.35 Generation Zers (born 1997–present) have also been labeled Post- Millennials, iGeneration, Founders, and Plurals. There is much debate surrounding the birth years that define this generation. For this chapter, we have chosen to utilize the range identified by consulting firm Frank N. Magid Associates.36 The oldest members of this generation currently occupy entry-level positions in the workforce. Generation Z is the first generation to have access to the Internet from a young age. As a group, they are viewed as being comfortable with technology and social media, demonstrating independence, and having an entrepreneurial desire.37 ©Igor Emmerich/Image Source RF The characteristics that each generational cohort exhibits can be used to better understand the needs and preferences of its members. Marketing professionals, for example, use this information to guide companies in tailoring their products and services to their desired target audiences. Using the VALS (“Values, Attitudes, and Lifestyles”) inventory, adults can be placed into one of eight distinct mindset categories that correspond with the major events and experiences of their generations. Consider the following key characteristics that tend to be associated with Millennials (Strivers) and Baby Boomers (Thinkers):38 36 111 Strivers Thinkers Use video and video games as a form of fantasy Enjoy a historical perspective Have revolving employment; high temporary employment Are not influenced by what’s hot Rely heavily on public transportation Use technology in functional ways Wear their wealth Buy proven products Because each generation brings its own unique qualities into the workplace,39 it stands to reason that challenges may arise when members work intergenerationally. While many conversations have ensued concerning characteristics that cause problems in the workplace—such as Baby Boomers being workaholics40 or Millennials being in need of recognition—a more productive goal is to focus on the positive qualities that each generation brings to the workplace.41 As communication researchers Karen K. Myers and Kamyab Sadaghiani explain: Millennials are likely to be acutely affected by globalization, communication and information technologies, economics, and socialization by very involved parents. They are likely to have different, often broader, perspectives about the world marketplace, supervisor– subordinate relationships, cultural diversity, performance of tasks, and ways that communication and information technologies can be used to enhance organizational performance and to maximize productivity. Many of these Millennial stances and behaviors can be viewed by organizations as opportunities rather than obstacles.42 Regional Differences Even in an age of great mobility, regional differences in communication styles persist. For example, your manner of speaking can have a strong effect on how you are perceived. Speakers of the standard dialect are rated higher than nonstandard speakers in a variety of ways: They are perceived 112 as more competent and more self-confident, and the content of their messages is rated more favorably.43 In one experiment, researchers asked human resources professionals to rate job applicants’ intelligence, initiative, and personality after hearing a 45-second recording of their voices. The speakers with identifiable regional accents—a Southern or New Jersey accent, for example—were recommended for lower- level jobs, while those with less pronounced speech styles were tagged for higher-level jobs that involved more public contact.44 The judgments attached to identifiable accents is a key reason why many call centers for U.S. companies are located in Midwestern states. Gallup, the national telephone research agency, uses call centers in Nebraska because of the neutral accents of many of the people who live there. The effect of non-native accents is even more powerful. In one study, jurors in the United States found testimony less believable when delivered by witnesses speaking with German, Mexican, or Middle Eastern accents.45 Not surprisingly, other research shows that speakers with non- native accents feel stigmatized by the bias against them, often leading to a lower sense of belonging and more communication problems.46 Beyond accent, regional differences in communication can be significant. In the United States, for example, the unwritten rules about smiling differ from one part of the country to another. One communication researcher found Midwesterners from Ohio, Indiana, and 37 Illinois smiled more than New Englanders from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. None of those people smiled as much as people from Southern and border states like Georgia, Kentucky, and Tennessee.47 Given these differences, it is easy to imagine how a manufacturer from Memphis might regard a banker from Boston as unfriendly, and how the New Englander might view the Southerner as overly demonstrative. CAREER tip 113 Building Intergenerational Relationships It is a fact of life that the ages of most organizations’ members span at least three generations. Thus, being successful in the workplace requires being able to embrace generational differences and build relationships with others. Consultants Kate Berardo and Simma Lieberman offer the following tips for improving your communication with members of differing generations: Be flexible. Be willing to adjust the channels you use to communicate (e.g., face-to-face, e-mail, social media). Avoid generational jargon. Speak in plain terms and avoid slang that other generations may not recognize (e.g., “the cat’s pajamas,” “wicked,” “my bad,” “yolo”). Be attentive. Look for verbal and nonverbal signs that you may be misunderstanding each other. Practice active listening. Listen for expressions that suggest that the other person has different values or outlooks than you. Use these moments to better understand the individual. Show respect. Most generations have felt they do not get the respect they deserve. Use these strategies to show coworkers that you respect them and their experiences. Source: Adapted from Berardo, K., & Lieberman, S., “Strategies for Cross-Generational Relationship Building,” The Culturosity Group, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.culturosity.com Disabilities The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the ADA Amendments Act (ADAAA) define a person with a disability as someone who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, someone who has a history or record of such an impairment, or someone who is perceived by others as having such an impairment. Disability is diverse and nondiscriminatory: It will touch all of us at some 114 point in our lives, either directly or through someone we love. In fact, the Social Security Administration estimates slightly more than one in four of today’s 20-year-olds will become disabled before reaching the age of 67.48 According to the Department of Labor, as of December 2016, more than 20 percent of the U.S. workforce consisted of persons with disabilities.49 Although the ADA and other laws have made great strides in improving accessibility and protecting the rights of persons with disabilities in the workplace, progress is still needed to educate members of the workforce about how to communicate with and about people with disabilities. Perhaps one of the most important things to remember when interacting with others is to emphasize the person first, not the disability. For example, group designations like “the disabled” or “the blind” do not reflect the individuality of people with disabilities. Likewise, referring to someone as “normal” implies that people with disabilities are not normal. Replace this language with affirmative phrases, such as “person with a disability” or “person who is blind.” The following is a list of general tips distributed by the Department of Homeland Security to promote effective interactions with persons with disabilities:50 38 When talking to a person with a disability, look at and speak directly to that person, rather than the individual’s companion. Be considerate of people’s service animals. Some people who have disabilities may use a service animal. Do not pet or play with the animal, as this activity may unsettle the person and may interrupt the animal from performing its assistive duties. Avoid assuming the preferences and needs of people with disabilities. People with disabilities are individuals and, therefore, have individual preferences and needs. If you have the impression that a person needs help, ask the person if, and then how, you may be of assistance. 115 Communicate clearly and comprehensibly. As with all communication, an effective message is one that is spoken or written clearly and comprehensibly. This point is extremely important for people with disabilities who may have difficulty obtaining or comprehending messages. Be sure to convey your message in an understandable form and in multiple ways if necessary. If you do not need to know about the specific nature of someone’s disability, do not ask about that person’s disability. Your focus should be on what the person is communicating to you. In your conversation, relax. Don’t be embarrassed if you happen to use accepted common expressions such as “See you later” or “Got to be running along” that seem to relate to the person’s disability. Don’t be afraid to ask questions when you are unsure of how to assist the person. Sex and Gender As you will read in Chapter 4, male and female communication styles tend to differ in some significant ways. These differences have led some observers to suggest that the two sexes belong to two distinct co-cultures.51 Indeed, research has confirmed there are some differences in how men and women communicate.52 For example, sociolinguist Deborah Tannen has described men and women as expressing “different words from different worlds” and being “tuned to different frequencies.”53 Unfortunately, perceptions of such differences have led to instances of sex and gender discrimination in the workplace. This type of discrimination involves unlawfully treating someone unfavorably because of their biological sex (male, female, or intersex) or gender identity (e.g., agender, androgynous, bigender, transitioning, transgender).54 The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) interprets any sex discrimination as including discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation regardless of contrary state or local laws.55 Although improvements have been made, women continue to face some sex-based issues in the workplace today—most notably the wage gap. In 2015, female full-time employees made only 80 cents for every dollar earned by men. Several other factors have been suggested to hinder 116 women in advancing in their careers, including a lack of mentors and role models, exclusion from informal communication networks, stereotyping of roles and abilities, lack of experience, and family responsibilities.56 If you accept the “different cultures” argument, then the guidelines for intercultural communication provided on pp. 50–52 offer useful tips for dealing with members of the opposite sex. Rather than “ethnocentrically” finding fault with the way they communicate, a more productive approach might be to think that members of the opposite sex are speaking a different language to some degree. Promoting sex equality in the workplace can also be achieved by providing training to management, providing employees with on-site child care facilities for mothers and 39 fathers, promoting successful women in the company, publicizing efforts to promote equality, compensating employees equally for performing the same work, and establishing policies that forbid sexual harassment.58 CAREER tip Disclosing Disability Status during an Interview Although a job candidate is not required to disclose a disability to a prospective employer, there are several stages in the employment process when people with disabilities may feel compelled to disclose this information. If an accommodation is needed to complete an online application or participate in an interview, an applicant may need to disclose his or her disability. In this instance, an employer is able to ask the applicant for reasonable documentation—such as a note from an appropriate professional—that provides information about the disability, limitations, and accommodation needs. 117 The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits interviewers from asking job candidates about a disability or the nature or severity of the disability. For a job candidate, however, questions may arise—for example, gaps in work history—that are difficult to explain. It is a good idea for the applicant to consider the questions that may be asked and rehearse the answers. Applicants who choose to disclose their disability status at this point should focus on showing their ability to deal with a difficult situation in a positive manner. Many experts suggest that it is also helpful to anticipate concerns that an employer may have and find ways to address such concerns during the interview with anecdotes that demonstrate success. For example, persons with visible disabilities who wish to disclose their disability status during the interview can proactively describe an accommodation in a way that communicates self-confidence and an ability to perform the job effectively: “In my previous work, I was responsible for maintaining our inventory. I created a labeling system with a good color contrast that I could see easily. It turns out that this was a benefit for others as well.”57 Progress toward transgender-inclusive workplaces is also being made across the nation. According to the Human Rights Campaign’s (HRC) 2017 Corporate Equality Index, 382 major employers have developed gender transition guidelines for their workforce.59 Anticipating employees’ needs and having a plan in place to communicate acceptance and respect during such a transition is an important part of today’s work environment. The following strategies may be helpful in creating a culture of inclusion and community for individuals who are transitioning:60 Create guidelines that explain expectations of transitioning employees, supervisors, colleagues, and staff. Host diversity training and educational programs (in-person or online). Offer employees an option to self-identify using anonymous surveys or confidential human resources records. Have formally recognized employee networks for diverse populations of the workforce. 118 Provide networks related to such issues access to resources, such as meeting rooms. Develop inclusive and visible philanthropic efforts. Creating an inclusive culture benefits both the employee and the company. As an example, Patagonia provides company-paid health care and sick time to all employees, paid maternity and paternity leave, and access to on-site child care, among other benefits. The company’s chief executive officer, Rose Marcario, lists numerous benefits of these actions: the ability to recoup 50 percent of costs in tax benefits, increased employee 40 retention, increased employee engagement, more women in management, greater employee loyalty, and a stronger workplace culture of trust.61 Military Veterans Military veterans have served or are serving in the armed forces, and some have had exposure to military conflicts, such as war. Many employers recognize the strengths that veterans can bring to the workplace, including working well with a team, taking responsibility for job performance, demonstrating self-confidence, being organized and disciplined, possessing a strong work ethic, having the ability to complete assignments under stressful circumstances, being able to adapt to situations, and being able to quickly and creatively solve problems.62 As a result, the unemployment rate for veterans fell to 4.6 percent in March 2016, the lowest level in seven years.63 Despite the increase in their employment rate in recent years, veterans’ well-being in the workplace is lower than that of other Americans.64 Among the challenges that veterans may face are being expected to go home at the end of the workday, even if the “mission” is not complete; being immersed in a competitive, rather than collaborative, workplace; adjusting to a new position and social changes; and worrying about possible job loss.65 119 In one study, a group of veterans discussed the need to educate supervisors about the nature of post-traumatic stress, as well as the need for supervisors to make the workplace a safe environment and to ask for resources and accommodations for veterans experiencing post-traumatic stress.66 Other measures suggested as helpful for recruiting and retaining veterans in the workplace include the following:67 Support/development of networking groups Offering educational components focused on professional development, leadership, or veterans community initiatives Programs addressing veterans’ transition, networking, and post- traumatic stress needs Mandatory employee training on military-related issues Veteran internship programs Educating groups, such as chambers of commerce and Rotary clubs, on veteran recruitment

• Cultural Differences in International Business Browse the travel and business sections of any bookseller or library, and you are likely to find many volumes detailing the cultures and business practices around the world. Some cultural differences in customs and behavior are obvious. For example, your work life will be simpler once you understand that punctuality is important in Switzerland and Germany but less important in most parts of Africa. As Table 2-1 on the next page shows, other differences are more subtle. We begin this section by looking at the more obvious differences in customs and behavior that distinguish cultures. Next, we explore some fundamental dimensions of diversity that are less obvious but just as important. The following categories are not an exhaustive list of differences between countries, but they suggest the importance of learning rules of the cultures in which you will operate.

Contrasting Chinese–Western Concerns and 120 Table 2-1 Communication Practices Chinese Western Concerns Saving face Respect, politeness Compromise, flexibility General feeling, “spirit” Social status Patience Frankness, “honesty” Assertiveness Self-assurance Specific terms Task at hand Time efficiency Communication practices Reserved Tentative Personal No body contact No pointing Extroverted Firm Less personal Hugging, backslapping acceptable Index finger used to point Source: Chen, M., Inside Chinese Business: A Guide for Managers Worldwide. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2001. Customs and Behavior Before cataloging differences in communication around the world, it is important to note that people from varied backgrounds also share many similarities. For example, computer 41 engineers from Singapore, Lima, Tel Aviv, and Vancouver would find plenty of mutual interests and perspectives due to their shared occupational and socioeconomic backgrounds. Even when we acknowledge cultural variation, the fact remains that not everyone in a culture behaves identically. Figure 2.2 shows both the overlap in communication practices and the range of behavior within each one. Furthermore, within every culture, members display a wide range of communication styles. Ignoring similarities across cultures (intercultural) and variations between members of the same cultural group (intracultural) can lead to stereotyping people from different backgrounds. FIGURE 2.2 Differences and Similarities within and between Cultures 121 Source: Adapted from Bond, M. H., Beyond the Chinese Face. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1991; Trompenaars, F., Riding the Waves of Culture. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 1994. Formality Americans take pleasure in their informality and their quickness in getting on a first-name basis with others. With the exception of a few countries, including Thailand and Australia, business exchanges involving persons from other countries tend to be much more formal, especially at the beginning of a relationship.68 In the United States 42 and Canada, first names are seen as friendly and indicative of fondness and attachment. In contrast, in many other countries—Mexico, Germany, and Egypt, for example—titles are an important way of showing respect, and it is best to use them until you are invited to move to a first-name basis.69 Names and titles are not the only way to express degrees of formality. The way people do—or do not—converse with strangers varies from one culture to another. In North America, it is not uncommon to strike up a conversation with a stranger. This custom is not universal, however. The U.S. retail giant Wal-Mart made the strategic decision not to hire greeters at its German stores for reasons expressed by a public relations expert from that country: “As a German, I find the idea of being greeted at the door uncomfortable. I would feel astonished if someone I didn’t know started talking to me.”70 Social Customs Cultural differences begin as soon as communicators encounter one another. Greetings range from the bow (lower is more respectful) in Japan, to the wai (pressed palms with a head bow) in Thailand, to the handshake in Europe and South America. 122 In many countries, exchanging business cards is an important ritual. In Japan, especially, cards are given and received with care: The recipient should use two hands and s

[TRUNCATED]